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1 MAIN MENU An Introduction
The future has arrived. It's just not evenly distributed.
william gibson
Digital games today play a large role in young people's lives. According to a recent
study among German children and teenagers regarding their media usage, 62% of them
(aged 6 to 13) used digital games once or several times a week, 16% of whom even stated
that they used digital games almost every day (mpfs 2010: 44)
1
. Games are directly
connected to the life of today's adolescents. Therefore, digital games should be included
and broached as a subject in the classroom, too:
[G]ames are so overwhelmingly popular that at the very minimum schools should help young
people to be able to understand them, just as understanding novels, science concepts, mo-
ments in history, and geographical phenomena are important to a young person's education
(Williamson 2009: 5).
The ardor and enthusiasm that digital games evoke in teenagers has indeed brought
many researchers, school leaders and teachers to the question of if and how games
can be used to engage young people and support their learning inside the classroom.
Additionally, studies have shown that digital games can enhance various skills such as
the ability to concentrate, stamina, tactical aptness, anticipatory thinking, orientation
in virtual spaces, and deductive reasoning (cf. Lemmel-Seedorf 2010a: 12). Thus, digital
games should have a place in the classroom. There are various possibilities to integrate
games in teaching units, some of which will be addressed later on in the paper. Despite
these findings, digital games have until now hardly played any role in formal education,
due to (among others) the following reasons:
· dubious quality of games (controversy over violence, etc . . . );
· bad technical equipment of schools;
· critical or deprecative attitude toward games.
1
The KIM study examines the media usage of adolescents and is carried out every year. The figures
above are from the study of 2010.
1
1 MAIN MENU An Introduction
It seems that, above all, the latter reason is the main argument why the learning with
digital games has so far hardly been mentioned and appreciated in didactics (all over the
world, and in Germany even less so!). Digital games have a bad image and are mostly
considered negative influence on adolescents (cf. chapter 6.4), which does not come as
a surprise because skepticism of new media has, it seems, a long tradition in Germany:
Die Errungenschaften moderner Technik werden missbraucht zu tausend- und millionenfachen
Vervielf¨
altigungen schamloser Objekte in Kinematographen (Montgelas-Wimpffen 1912: 61).
This is a statement from 1912 by the Bavarian Countess Pauline Montgelas-Wimpffen
about the at that time new medium `film' which today is utterly established in our
medial reception (and in formal learning contexts, too). But in Germany, new media
have always been approached with doubt and disaffirmation when they first emerged:
Speziell in Deutschland [...] scheint es eine Tradition zu geben, eher die Risiken und Neben-
wirkungen neuer Technologien zu sehen als den Gewinn an Erkenntnis, Genuss und Lebens-
qualit¨
at, der sich aus ihnen ziehen l¨
asst. (Gundelach 2006: 164).
When digital games first emerged in the 1980s, the reactions were very similar to those
of Countess Montgelas-Wimpffen. Before those, it was comics and graphic novels which
were doomed as "Schmutz- und Schundliteratur" (Gundelach 2006: 165) in the 1950s.
In the 18th century it was novels that were supposedly the root of all evil Goethe's
Die Leiden des jungen Werther was accused of precipitating a series of suicides.
In most cases, it turned out that the alleged dangers and threats did not arise from the
media themselves, but rather from the people consuming them. However, at all times
the same people have developed the competence to reasonably handle those media. So it
seems what we need is media literacy ("Medienkompetenz") in order to enable students
to do exactly that. Media literacy is a competence that German curricula explicitly
name to be developed in school, and digital games can contribute their part to that
goal.
Also, in regard to the above mentioned developments of different media, it seems
realistic to opine that several years from now, digital games will be more widely accepted,
will be taken for granted in everyday life and digital game based learning (cf. chapter
2) will probably be an accepted method of learning (cf. Prensky 2001: 3).
However, today the situation is still rather difficult society's overly critical attitude
toward digital games puts anybody who wants to use them in class in a complicated
2
1 MAIN MENU An Introduction
situation; unlike with other media, there exists a "Bringschuld" an obligation to deliver,
namely: evidence in favor of digital games; evidence that (against all odds, it seems)
proves digital games to be a legitimate, appropriate and successful means of educating
learning goals.
I am now in this "Bringschuld", too. Which is all the more strange as digital games
are on their way of becoming the leading medium of the 21st century. Neitzel (2008:
64) argues that the patterns of action as they can be observed on the computer are
"paradigmatisch f¨
ur unseren Umgang mit digitalen Medien". Other countries (e. g.
Great Britain) have taken up a more open stance on the learning with digital games.
This paper will illustrate why that is so, and why it should be alike in Germany.
I will show that digital games are a legitimate subject in the classroom (both as
topic and as tool, i. e. method) and which games (types and genres) can be used to
fulfill particular purposes. Possible ways of integrating games into teaching units will
be presented, next to the abilities and competences that can be enhanced by the use
of digital games (both in general and in specific regard to EFL, where there is still a
serious deficit of concrete ideas for lesson plans and teaching units). I will show how
digital games can be used in a pedagogic way, but I will rather concentrate on how
they can be used as a didactic means and method "als ein Bestandteil eines didaktisch-
methodischen Werkzeugkoffers" (Lemmel-Seedorf 2010b: 17). Furthermore, particular
challenges and problems will be identified that arise when the use of a digital game in
class is planned. The subject of psychological effects of digital games on the player will
be broached in chapter 5.
The `object of investigation' with the help of which the potential of digital game
based learning is to be explored in this paper are so-called commercial off-the-shelf
(COTS) games
(cf. chapter 3.1). These are games which are designed for leisure and
entertainment and mostly the ones that have a strong position in the market. They are
the ones which students play in their leisure time and which thus are more accepted and
provide the higher motivational potential among students. Additionally, it proves more
challenging to identity and develop educational benefits with this type of games. Similar
to movies which are not `made' for learning but have to be adapted by the teacher to
fit educational goals, COTS games have to be analyzed closely and prepared adequately
to fit educational purposes, and I find the task of showing how this can be done highly
3
1 MAIN MENU An Introduction
interesting.
The reader of this paper might find its structure (as seen in the Table of Contents)
atypical. The terms in capital letters all refer to representative options on the main
menu interface of an average digital game (as can be seen on the picture before the
Table of Contents). Thus, this paper follows the structure of exactly those games which
give it its reason for being.
4
2 NEW GAME Digital Game Based Learning
Anyone who makes a distinction between games and education
clearly does not know the first thing about either one.
marshall mcluhan
DEFINITION
The term digital game based learning (alternatively also game based learning) (henceforth
DGBL) was coined by Marc Prensky (2001). He is the founding father of the concept.
Digital game based learning, according to Prensky, is "any marriage of educational
content and computer games" (2001: 145). DGBL-oriented approaches try to use the
learning and motivational potential of digital games to teach `regular' knowledge and
competences. Bober (2010: 7) defines DGBL-experiences as based on activities that:
· have a digital game (for a definition cf. chapter 3.1) at their core, either as the
main activity or as a stimulus for other related activities;
· can take place in a formal (e. g. school) or informal (e. g. home) learning
environment (cf. chapter 6.5);
· have learning as a desired or incidental outcome.
She also states that it is "important to distinguish between learning directly from
playing the game and learning from teacher-led activities associated with the game"
(Bober 2010: 7). For the EFL classroom, the higher potential of DGBL will be found
in the latter option.
Prensky's original concept refers more to corporate training in business companies
or usage in the military than to usage in the K-12 classroom. He merely branches the
subject of DGBL in school. He also mainly understands DGBL as the use of games which
have been specifically designed for learning. However, he does not explicitly exclude the
use of COTS games: "A small but growing number of commercial games [...] are filled
with content that can be very useful for certain types of [...] training" (2001: 146).
Nevertheless, DGBL is exactly what this paper aims to explore namely the teaching of
learning content (in this case in the German EFL classroom) by means of digital games.
5
2 NEW GAME Digital Game Based Learning
REALITY CHECK
In this paper, I will only marginally broach the subject of how (both in quantity as in
quality) DGBL is actually used around the world, simply because it would go beyond
the scope (cf. chapter 7.2). However, at this introductory point I find it useful to do
a short `reality check' of how DGBL has been used until today. A study was recently
carried out by European Schoolnet
2
(Joyce/Gerhard/Debry 2009) in several European
countries (Germany was not among them). Its aim was to address the following question:
What can digital games bring to classroom teaching, and how are they actually used
by teachers? 528 usable responses from teachers of 27 countries were available, 373 of
whom said they actually used games in their classes (64). Regardless of whether they
used digital games in their teaching, most of the teachers who were surveyed expressed
real interest in their potential, as 80% want to know more. 50% of teachers who are not
yet using DGBL said they would like to try it out (62).
With the help of questionnaires, the following aspects were covered and evaluated
(among others): the teacher's level of ICT (information and communications technology)
skills, frequency of ICT use in teaching, interest in the use of games, game skills level,
profile of the teachers (age, gender, student group, subject(s) taught). 20% of teachers
using games in their classes are foreign language teachers (65-72). This is the group that
is represented second-best after ICT and technology teachers (with 30%).
When asked what they expected from the use of digital games, the answers were very
diverse. Several of them have to do with how the use of games can be integrated in
the learning process: games should be tools that motivate students and allow them to
have fun while playing the game. Many find it important that games can be used in
a flexible way (e. g. different levels, allowing students to progress at different speeds).
Some teachers stressed the importance of a good didactic approach (or at least the
possibility of using a game in the classroom in a beneficial didactic way), in particular
the opportunity for immediate feedback. Other expectations have to do with the content
of the game. It should be consistent with the educational goals for a particular class.
2
On their homepage, the European Schoolnet (EUN) describes itself as "a network of 31 Ministries of
Education in Europe and beyond. EUN was created more than 10 years ago with the aim to bring
about innovation in teaching and learning to its key stakeholders: Ministries of Education, schools,
teachers and researchers." (http://www.eun.org/web/guest/about/thisiseun)
6
2 NEW GAME Digital Game Based Learning
The content of the games should also be "valid", i. e. not containing factual errors that
would contradict what is taught in other courses (e. g. historical facts). Another clear
requirement is that it should be possible to integrate a game into the curriculum and
adapt it to the specific needs of each class. Also, teachers would like the games to be
easy to use (simple installation, no technical problems) (73-74).
When asked to give reasons why and for what learning purposes they used games in
their teaching, teachers most frequently named the following:
· to facilitate learning certain subjects and developing specific skills;
· to motivate students and raise their interest;
· to better reflect students' environments (digital games and playing are `normal'
for them);
· to make learning enjoyable (75).
Roughly a quarter of the games used in teaching are intended to improve language
learning (both mother-tongue and foreign languages). Games are also used to improve
certain skills, such as teamwork skills, mental skills, ICT skills, and motor skills (cf.
chapter 6.5) (76).
Various obstacles to and reasons for not using games in the classroom were named.
These findings will be included and discussed in chapter 7.1.
In the survey, teachers were also asked to assess the potential and possible educational
impact of games on the students and their learning. The following figure (Figure 1)
shows frequently named aspects and their pedagogical value as assessed by the teachers.
Overall, teachers who use games are fairly or very positive about the impact of games
on the development of students' competences. They are most positive about how games
contribute to the students' motivation. Only 10% found that using games has little
visible effect (85-86).
PREVIOUS RESEARCH & LITERATURE
During the last years (especially from 2005 onward) there has been a significant increase
in the literature on the potential educational benefits and use of digital games in both
7
2 NEW GAME Digital Game Based Learning
Figure 1: Teachers'
Opinions
on
the
Educational
Impact
of
Using
Games
(Joyce/Gerhard/Debry 2009: 85).
formal and informal learning contexts as the interest has grown in the potential use of
COTS games for learning:
A key driver for this interest is the often cited view that young people are both increasingly
disengaged with education and increasingly motivated by the digital games culture outside
school. Incorporating computer games into learning environments, it is hoped by many, will
enhance student engagement with learning (Sandford et al. 2006: 6).
However, to date the majority of research on that subject has focused on informal,
out-of-school contexts (i. a. Gebel/Gurt/Wagner 2004 and 2005, Gebel 2006a, Kraam-
Aulenbach 2005, Fromme 2008). The positions which are taken in the literature suggest:
· "dass Computerspiele Aufgaben und Anforderungen beinhalten, deren Bew¨altigung
Kompetenzen erfordern, die beim Spielen selbst erworben werden k¨
onnen und m¨
ussen"
(Fromme 2008: 8).
· "that computer games are designed `to be learned' and therefore provide models of good
learning practices, and that by playing games young people are developing practical
competencies and social practices that are equipping them for 21st century workplaces,
communication, and social lives" (Sandford/Williamson 2005: 2)
· "that when young people are playing computer and video games they are engaged in
learning activities that are more complex and challenging than most of their formal
school tasks" (Sandford/Williamson 2005: 3)
8
2 NEW GAME Digital Game Based Learning
While these positions might be correct, the above-stated informal potential of digital
games is not sufficient to justify their use in a curriculum-oriented and tight schedule in
the classroom. What would, however, justify it is the potential education of skills and
knowledge which are explicitly demanded by the curriculum (cf. chapters 6.4 and 6.5).
Curtain up for those studies which explore and examine exactly that: how the potential
of COTS games can be used in formal (= school) learning contexts. Those studies are
now growing in number, too (although not in Germany!), and they are showing promising
results: digital games do indeed possess educational benefits (cf. chapter 6.5) but at
the same time also pose various challenges (cf. chapter 7.1) (i. a. Sandford/Williamson
2005, Ellis et al. 2006, Sandford et al. 2006, Joyce/Gerhard/Debry 2009, Williamson
2009, Bober 2010, Groff/Howells/Cranmer 2010, Kearney 2010).
Most research that has been carried out subscribes to one of the following approaches
to the use of digital games: pedagogic versus didactic
3
. Pedagogic approaches, which
are larger in number, use digital games as topic (e. g. for discussion) (e. g. Fileccia
et al. 2010). Nevertheless, didactic approaches are beginning to appear on the market,
too, which use games as tool (e. g. Joyce/Gerhard/Debry 2009, Groff/Howells/Cranmer
2010). In this paper, I will mainly concentrate on the didactic approach
4
.
3
German Medienp¨
agagogik and Mediendidaktik.
4
For a more detailed description of the two approaches, cf. chapter 7.5.
9
3 TUTORIAL Digital Games
3.1 Definition
Video games ruined my life. Good thing I have two extra lives.
threadless t-shirt slogan
The field of digital games covers a large spectrum of technologies including video and
console games (e. g. played on the Sony PlayStation, Microsoft XBox, Nintendo Wii),
computer games (played on the PC or Mac), and handheld games (such as the Nintendo
DS, PlayStation Portable)
5
. A digital game is defined as one that (Kirriemuir/McFarlane
2004: 6):
· "provides some visual digital information or substance to one or more players;
· takes some input from the players;
· processes the input according to a set of programmed rules;
· alters the digital information provided to the players".
According to Marc Prensky (2001: 118-119), there are six structural elements that
characterize digital games, some of which overlap with the criteria identified above. Most
of these elements will be picked up and discussed later in this paper:
· rules
· goals and objectives
· outcomes and feedback
· conflict/competition/challenge/opposition
· interaction
· representation or story.
5
For the sake of simplicity, this paper henceforth uses the term digital game or simply game to refer
to all kinds of contemporary games played on any machine, unless otherwise indicated.
10
3 TUTORIAL Digital Games
In the context of the field of digital games and learning, various terms and concepts
have emerged which partly mean the same and partly refer to different aspects. This
includes for instance: edutainment, serious games, e-learning, learning games, COTS.
Efforts to utilize especially the motivational power of digital games have led to the emer-
gence of the so-called edutainment industry which produces games that unite aspects
of both education and entertainment these are often called serious games and are
"games that have serious purposes" (Purdy 2007: 3), specifically designed to help peo-
ple learn particular skills and facts. Although these learning-oriented games use modern
gaming techniques, they tend to be plainer in composition and graphics since they are
produced on much lower budgets than commercial games. Additionally, their learning
objective often becomes quite evident to the player and thus reduces their `entertaining'
effect: "Schnell entdecken sie [die Sch¨
uler] hier auch, wie fr¨
uher in (nicht digitalen) Lern-
spielen, den p¨
adagogischen Zeigefinger, der den Spielspaß ¨
uberlagert oder ganz erstickt,
sodass nur noch Arbeit ¨
ubrig bleibt" (Fileccia et al. 2010: 45). This is one of the main
reasons why serious games are only moderately successful.
The `big brother' of serious games are commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) games
(sometimes also referred to as entertainment or mainstream games).
These are
purely designed for leisure and entertainment and mostly the ones that have a strong
position in the market. Although they might not be invented for educational purposes,
it will be shown that COTS games possess both intrinsic learning potential for cognitive,
spatial, motor skills and ICT skills (cf. Felicia 2009: 7) as well learning potential that
can unfold when used as a stimulus (cf. chapter 6.5).
E-learning
refers to all learning that is based on digital media, e. g. consoles, com-
puters, increasingly cell phones, too. Thus, next to above mentioned serious games,
e-learning also includes learning software such as vocabulary trainers.
3.2 Taxonomy of Games
This paper will continuously mention digital games of different kinds and genres. As
will come to show, the appropriateness and `educational quality' of a game is in some
cases closely connected to the genre it belongs to or the type it subscribes to. Therefore
I find it necessary to provide an overview of existing game types and genres and typical
examples. Almost any comprehensive work or study on digital games provides a list
11
3 TUTORIAL Digital Games
of game genres (= a taxonomy). Taxonomies differentiate games according to their
different principles of play. In comparison, most taxonomies show many similarities but
of course also differences naturally, the categories that games are put into overlap to
some extent. Some games fit into several categories. Some genres are ambiguous or
known under different names. Some genres are defined so vaguely that they consist of a
variety of sub-genres. Reviewing several existing taxonomies, I am presenting one that
represents and summarizes what is on the market and what is relevant for this paper (cf.
Prensky 2001: 130-131, Grosch 2002: 21-32, Felicia 2009: 16-18, Groff/Howells/Cranmer
2010: 93-94). The list can be found in Appendix A.
3.3 Why Do People Play? The Fascinating World of Games
Fascination. Fascination. It's just the way we feel . . .
alphabeat
Much literature has been published on the question of why people play digital games
what makes them so fascinating and captivating that some people spend hours in
front of their computer screens (i.
a.
Fritz 1995/2005/2006, Fritz/Fehr 1997, Kir-
riemuir/McFarlane 2004, Klimmt 2004, Johnson 2005, Sleegers/Witting 2008, Fileccia
2010).
One of the earliest and most cited works is by Thomas Malone (1981) who identified
three main ways in which games motivated players: fantasy, challenge, and curiosity.
Other research has built upon and expanded these findings. Five components can be
identified as catering to the motivational potential of digital games (cf. Fileccia 2008,
Grosch 2008, Sleegers/Witting 2008):
· interactivity
· power and control
· personal relation
· social dimension
· balanced challenge (between tasks that demand too little / too much)
12
3 TUTORIAL Digital Games
Interactivity.
All games are interactive unlike novels or movies, the plot of digital
games is inevitably actively influenced and shaped by the player. Often, the term `in-
teractive game' is used; however, M¨
ayr¨
a (2008: 6) argues that "[g]ames are interactive
by heart, to the degree that it is tautology to use the expression `interactive games'".
When a game is started, it is not yet clear and given how it will end, whether the player
succeeds or fails. The player interacts with the game, and as s/he sees how his/her de-
cisions and abilities actually have an influence on the plotline and game world, this can
have a highly motivating effect (for a more detailed analysis of the interactivity aspect
in games, cf. chapter 4.3).
Power and control.
Regardless of the role a player performs in a game, s/he takes
control over the actions of his/her virtual character. Two conditions have to be fulfilled
so that the player can exercise control and power. First, s/he has to know the game
controls (which buttons trigger which actions) and his/her way around in the game world.
Mastery of game controls is especially needed in games that require fast reactions and
hand-eye coordination (such as shooters). Second, the player must understand the rules
underlying the game. S/he needs to know what is `allowed' and demanded in the game
in order to strategically and tactically plan actions. If the player fulfills both conditions,
s/he can be the ruler in and over the virtual world:
Gamer erfahren sich dabei in besonderem Maße als selbstwirksam und einflussreich, wenn der
Computer unmittelbar auf die gemachten Eingaben reagiert und die gew¨
unschte Reaktion
zeigt. In andern Lebensbereichen ist eine derart intensive Erfahrung eigener Wirksamkeit
und Kontrolle kaum zu realisieren (Sleegers/Witting 2008: 10).
According to Klimmt (2004: 8), self-efficacy as the player experiences it in games is
the most motivating factor in digital games.
Social dimension.
In a digital game, the player always plays with or against some-
body. In a single player game, the `somebody' is the computer; in a multi player or
online game, it is other players. The knowledge and mastery of digital games ("game
literacy") functions as `social currency' in some peer groups (cf. Sleegers/Witting 2008:
10) competences in regard to digital games are frequent topics, form friendships and
help build new relationships and make those adolescents who possess these competences
`experts' who are respected for it. Many teenagers prefer games that can be played
together or against one another:
13
3 TUTORIAL Digital Games
Dabei wird das Spielen gegen menschliche Gegner als herausfordernder erlebt, weil ein
menschlicher Gegner ¨
uber ein gr¨
oßeres Handlungsrepertoire verf¨
ugt und auch zu nicht
vorhersehbaren Reaktionen f¨
ahig ist (Sleegers/Witting 2008: 10).
Thus, there exist many virtual communities in which the players feel like they `belong'
and are respected. Additionally, many teenagers play digital games together with their
friends, an activity they share like going to the movies, etc . . .
Balanced challenge.
The difficulty and complexity of a game and the degree of
challenge that each player experiences subjectively factor into the decision whether a
game is played over a longer period of time. A game that is perceived as too easy or
too difficult will not engage players continuously. The challenge of the game between
tasks that demand too little or too much (and thus between fascination and frustration)
needs to be balanced. A player who rushes through the game, overcoming all obstacles
effortlessly will miss the challenge. Similarly, a player who constantly fails in solving
tasks will quickly be frustrated. Usually, games are designed to meet all kinds of different
`game literacies' of players by providing various difficulty or game play modes, and/or
increasing the difficulty of the game as it progresses (cf. chapter 4.5):
In einem Rennspiel werden beispielsweise die Strecken immer schwieriger, die Konkurrenz
immer st¨
arker oder das Zeitlimit geringer. Bei einem Strategie- oder Actionspiel passt sich
wohlm¨
oglich der Computergegner an die eigene Spielweise an, so dass er sich im Spielverlauf
immer schneller und raffinierter verteidigt oder angreift (Sleegers/Witting 2008: 11).
The player needs to have the impression that s/he can master the given tasks with
reasonable effort, even if some training is required. Whenever a player feels positively
challenged over a longer period of time, s/he might get entirely carried away with the
game world. Psychologist Mih´
aly Csikszentmih´
alyi calls this feeling of getting carried
away in a game and of being positively challenged `flow' (1985):
It is a state in which [users] can forget about their surroundings and become totally engaged
and focused on the task in hand. In this state [...], players will strive to achieve their goal,
regardless of the challenges encountered (Felicia 2009: 12-13).
People can enter a state of flow (cf. Figure 2) not only when playing digital games,
but also during other activities which are challenging (e. g. playing an instrument,
doing sports). In the state of flow, the required abilities are fully exhausted and explicit
feedback on their effect is given.
14
3 TUTORIAL Digital Games
Figure 2: The Flow Theory (Masuch w.y.: 32).
Generally, this state, which according to Poole (2004: 168) is "the `Zen' experience
of playing a good videogame", does not differ remarkably from the so-called `immer-
sion', which Gunzenh¨
auser (2003: 63) defines as "Eintauchen in einen Raum oder in ein
Geschehen, das v¨
ollige, distanzlose Aufgehen in einer Computerspielwelt, das Vergessen
des Interface."
Flow and immersion are desired states in digital games both by players and designers.
For players, the more immersed they feel in a game, the more intensive their game
experience becomes. Thus, designers are anxious to provide elements in games that help
players achieve flow and immersion. Research on immersion also focuses on transfer
processes of virtual, simulated experiences on reality. These transfer processes and their
relation to immersion will be looked at in chapter 5.1.
Popular scientist Steven Johnson (2005) has found yet another explanation of why
digital games fascinate people. According to his findings, games "tap into the brain's
natural reward circuitry" (2005: 34). Games' perfectly designed gratification systems
instill a motivation (the `seeking') in players which drives them to put effort into the
game in order to receive the next reward (next level, new items, new areas, etc . . . ):
If you create a system where rewards are both clearly defined and achieved by exploring an
environment, you'll find human brains drawn to those systems [...]. It's the reward system
that draws those players in, and keeps their famously short attention span locked on the
screen (Johnson 2005: 38).
15
3 TUTORIAL Digital Games
No other medium provides such a "cocktail of reward and exploration" (38). The
neurotransmitter dopamine plays a large role in it. Its function is to direct the human
brain to goals, and it is released when a task is completed successfully (cf. Rosenfelder
2008: 63):
Das Dopaminsignal f¨
uhrt letzlich zu einer Freisetzung unterschiedlicher Substanzen in ver-
schiedenen Hirnarealen. Diese Freisetzung stellt subjektiv einen Belohnungseffekt dar. Das
dopaminerge System merkt sich zu erwartende Belohnungen, und wenn diese ausbleiben, sinkt
der Dopaminspiegel, was f¨
ur einen Anreiz sorgt, die Umwelt st¨
andig nach M¨
oglichkeiten der
Belohnung abzusuchen. Im Gehirn l¨
ost das unbefriedigte Verlangen den Impuls aus, Din-
gen auf den Grund zu gehen, Aufgaben selbst¨
andig zu l¨
osen und L¨
osungen f¨
ur Probleme zu
finden, sprich: Neues zu lernen (cf. Spitzer 2007: 180 in Marr 2010: 38).
No clear consensus can be found on why people like to play digital games, which does
not come as a surprise since there exists an enormous spectrum of entirely different
games, and the individuality of players plays a large role. As Poole (2004: 29) puts it:
Videogames are powerful, but they are nothing without humans to play them. So the inner
life of videogames how they work is bound up with the inner life of the player.
16
4 LOAD Game Studies
4.1 What are Game Studies?
Go easy on the reasons
You thought I would be too hard to define.
gregory & the hawk
In a study on youth, games and learning it is stated that the "debate around the value
of games and gaming has been to date overly polemic and surprisingly shallow" (Salen
2008). In many cases, it is the lack of a profound, science-based approach to games and
the culture of gaming which lead to uninformed, polemic fearmongering. Unfortunately
it is those texts which shape the public opinion of digital games, so it does not come as a
suprise that games have a bad reputation in our society. To countervail this image, one
has to take a closer look at how games are built and to learn about the creation of game
worlds in order to see what makes them `tick', in order to reach "analytical appreciation
and enhanced understanding" (M¨
ayr¨
a 2008: 1) of games.
I find it crucial to unveil the complexity and aesthetics that many contemporary digi-
tal games possess and thus to show that indeed many games are real "Kulturg¨
uter" and
not just "low culture trash" (Aarseth 2005: 7) even when violence plays a consider-
able role. However, this can only happen if the basic principles of how digital games
are created are explored. The knowledge (and capability of partial analysis) of these
principles is adamant for developing a computer-specific media competence and literacy
("Medienkompetenz") (as will be specified in chapter 6.5).
The basic principles can be allocated to particular perspectives, from which digital
games are viewed and analyzed. Thus, the aim of this chapter is to present and explain
these different perspectives which form the field of study that is called `Game Studies'.
This very young discipline, which (albeit having existed for several decades already) was
officially termed in 2001 (with the publication of Game Studies the international jour-
nal of computer game research the first journal to scientifically approach the subject)
is an interdisciplinary field of study in which scholars of literature, sociology, and com-
puter sciences can explore and research various aspects of digital games from different
perspectives:
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4 LOAD Game Studies
One of the key foci of game studies is analysis of games, which involves capacity to make
meaningful distinctions within and among games, and between different factors related to
playing them (M¨
ayr¨
a 2008: 17).
Although still so young, game studies are continuously expanding in popularity as
are their objects of study: digital games are a "significant cultural force, which [have] a
prominent role in the lives particularly of those people who are living in industrialized
countries" (M¨
ayr¨
a 2008: 4). This reflects in game studies having "reached the point
where it has become established both as a field of scientific enquiry and as a branch
of knowledge formally taught at universities" (ibid: 4). Most research has been carried
out on the subject of possible transfer and effects of digital games on players' behavior
however, theoretical approaches to the games themselves (their basic characteristics,
principles of creation, narration techniques, genre specifics, rule structures) have been
scarce.
Thus, game studies are still in the fledgling stages the idea of scholars of various
sciences working together and benefiting from each other's finding is yet a theoretical one;
the reality looks different. In most cases, the field of game studies is split into different
perspectives, each of which wants to comprehend and analyze games on their terms (see
below). However, these partial perspectives are one-sided and fail to do justice to the
complexity and diversity of today's digital game landscape. The application of merely
one approach does not allow for a comprehensive analysis of a game. It is therefore
desirable to apply various perspectives to games, as e. g. Kringiel (2009) has done in
his dissertation
6
. He distinguishes between (slightly altered):
· ludology
· narratology
· cyberdrama
· cinematography
6
In this dissertation he develops a `toolbox' to help with the systematic and broad analysis of games,
thereby taking into account various approaches and perspectives. He then applies this toolbox to
one particular game, Max Payne 2.
18
4 LOAD Game Studies
These perspectives will be described in more detail in the following chapters. Nat-
urally, there are overlaps between these categories, and single design elements (as will
come to show) can be discussed in the course of several perspectives (e. g. cutscenes
can be viewed as either a narrative or cinematographic device).
4.2 Ludology vs. Narratology
We walk the same path, but got on different shoes;
live in the same building, but we got different views.
lil wayne
The first perspective from which digital games can be viewed and analyzed is that
of `ludology' which, above all, regards digital games as a new form of `play' and thus
primarily examines their structural elements that are uniquely `play'-related, such as
rules, genre, game goals, game tasks, game conflict, level of difficulty and interactivity.
The term was coined by game theorist Gonzalo Frasca.
Albeit a short one, the history of game studies has produced a raging debate between
ludologists (supporters of this perspective) and narratologists, who, in a nutshell, com-
prehend games as texts and want to apply narrative theory to them. The question is:
who gets to claim the field?
The ludologists (whose most popular representatives are Gonzalo Frasca, Espen Aar-
seth, Jesper Juul) argue that simulation is the basis of each game, which runs contrary
to the principles of narratives. In his Masters thesis, Juul considered "interactive fiction
as a utopia (even if an interesting one), because of the fundamental conflicts between the
player-controlled interactivity happening in present time, which is at the heart of games,
and narrator-organized representation of events, at the heart of narratives" (M¨
ayr¨
a 2008:
9). Frasca specified that "games cannot be understood through theories derived from
narrative" (Frasca 2001). Ludologists see games as games, and nothing else, which is
problematic because it can be "taken to mean that the formal properties of video games
would thus be more imporant, more intrinsic, than the stories in the games" (Egenfeldt-
Nielsen et al. 2008: 196). The ludologists accuse the narratologists of neglecting ludic
(= `play'-specific) aspects such as interactivity, visual aesthetics, rules. However, the
narratologists argue that "the puzzles in a work of interactive fiction function to control
19
4 LOAD Game Studies
the revelation of the narrative; they are part of an interactive process that generates
narrative" (Montfort 2005: 3). They in turn criticize the basic idea of ludology, where
stories are "just uninteresting ornaments or gift wrappings to games" (Eskelinen 2001).
Today the radicalness of the debate has slowed down (M¨
ayr¨
a 2008: 10):
No one actually seems to be willing [anymore] to reduce games either into stories, or claim that
they are only interaction, or gameplay, pure and simple, without any potential for storytelling.
[...] Looking for narratives, one can find (or construct) them, and it is equally possible to
search and find the essence of games in their interactive character in their gameplay.
Remarkably, certain ludologists have come to agree with the importance of narrative
in games; Juul, for example, has altered his formerly radical view on narrative in games
(2003b: 168):
On a formal level, games are themable, meaning that a set of rules can be assigned a new
fictional world without modifying the rules. A game can always be changed from one setting
to another; the gun can become a green rectangle, the players can control wooden figures
rather than humanoid characters. But on an experiential level, fiction matters in games, and
it is important to remember the duality of the formal and the experiential perspective on
fiction in games.
Of course, not all digital games contain a narrative (cf. chapter 4.3). But those
which do must not be neglected in regard to their narrative potential. There exist
games that contain complex narratives which could in fact (at least partly) be analyzed
with means of narrative theory (as established by Franz K. Stanzel or G´
erard Genette).
Highly narrative games are especially useful in the EFL classroom, since the analysis
of narrative pieces of work is a fundamental aspect in classes 11 and 12. But: it is the
specifically ludic elements which render the game a unique medium and distinguish it
from e. g. films, so these specific elements must be appreciated, too.
The following chapter explains in more detail the specifics of narrative in digital games.
It will be shown which problems arise when traditional narrative theory is applied to
digital games, and how these problems can be solved. The nature of plot in games will
be discussed, and various types of possible narrative situations will be identified.
20
4 LOAD Game Studies
4.3 Narrative & Interactivity
There is fiction in the space between
Write it down but it doesn't mean
You're not just telling stories.
tracy chapman
As indicated in the previous chapter, the type of narrative in games differs from that
in books or movies as it is interactive. This chapter aims at providing an explanation
of what narrative is and how it is relevant for interactive media such as digital games.
Both concepts narrative and interactivity will be explained, the nature of plot in
games will be specified, and various types of narrative will be categorized as they occur
in digital games.
INTERACTIVITY
Many definitions have been given on what constitutes interactivity, all of which can be
categorized into one of the following three main views: technology oriented, communi-
cation-setting oriented, individual oriented. All of the approaches have their flaws (cf.
Lee/Park/Jin 2006: 261-263):
Technology oriented
approaches have viewed interactivity as a characteristic of new
technologies, but they are problematic because even the same medium can have a dif-
ferent degree of interactivity, depending on how it is actually used by a person. Not the
medium has the interactivity, but the user perceives it.
Communication-setting oriented
views consider interactivity as a "process-related
characteristic of a communication setting" (Lee/Park/Jin 2006: 261), but their assump-
tions are unrealistic in that not every participant in a communication setting wants the
same amount of information exchange; even more interactivity does not even require
any actual exchange of information (observation might suffice).
Individual oriented
approaches have defined interactivity from a user's viewpoint, but
they were made in the context of human-to-human interactions, and are therefore not
applicable to human-technology interactions.
Instead, Lee/Park/Jin (2006: 263) propose a definition that considers interactivity as
a "perceived characteristic of a communication act, which varies according to a commu-
21
4 LOAD Game Studies
nicating actor's perception". The more experienced and immersed a player becomes in
his/her game play, the higher a level of interactivity s/he will perceive:
Interactivity is a perceived degree that a person in a communication process with at least one
more intelligent being can bring a reciprocal effect to other participants of the communication
process by turn-taking, feedback, and choice behaviors (Lee/Park/Jin 2006: 263).
NARRATIVE
With the term of narrative, it is similar to interactivity a variety of definitions exist.
Mallon/Webb (2000: 270) have argued that "narrative is one of the oldest constructs
humans use for understanding and giving meanings to the world". As can be expected
from the long history of narratives, there have been many theoretical concepts and
definitions, some of which disagree with others. Abbott (2009: 12) defined narrative as
"the representation of an event or a series of events". This definition and others, too,
cater (or at least do not object) to the assumption that every narrative consists of two
major elements, namely story and plot. Story is the chronological sequence of events as
they unfold, whereas plot is the way/order in which the story is conveyed (and which is
not necessarily chronological) (cf. Figure 3). A story is always constructed by a plot.
Figure 3: Story and Plot
22
4 LOAD Game Studies
PROBLEMS
When applying Abbott's definition to interactive media such as digital games, several
problems arise. It is exactly these problems that encouraged convinced ludologists to
form their viewpoints (as presented in chapter 4.2). However, their objections prove to
be perfectly valid (cf. Juul 2001 and Lee/Park/Jin 2006):
· the definition of narrative in regard to games the traditional definition views
narrative as a predetermined structure and was created with a specific medium
in mind (e. g. books, movies) which allows for passive participation. However,
interactive media are characterized by the active participation of a user.
· a "die mediale Spezifit¨at ignorierende ¨Uberst¨ulpung von aus dem Printmedium
generierten Erz¨
ahltheorien auf ein digitales Medium" (Kocher 2006: 33) the type
of narrative in digital games differs from that in traditional media: "Computer-
game players could change the course of the narrative or even construct a new nar-
rative by changing their behaviors and performance during a game" (Lee/Park/Jin
2006: 260).
SOLUTIONS
But, as Ryan correctly points out (2001):
The inability of literary narratology to account for the experience of games does not mean
that we should throw away the concept of narrative in ludology; it rather means that we
need to expand the catalog of narrative modalities beyond the diegetic and the dramatic, by
adding a phenomenological category tailor-made for games.
And various researchers have indeed dedicated their time to finding a solution for the
dilemma of traditional narratology not `fitting' digital games. Two different approaches
will be presented here (Lee/Park/Jin 2006 and Kocher 2006). Lee/Park/Jin propose an
alternative definition which can easily be applied to interactive media (2006: 265):
Narrative is a representation of events that provides a cognitive structure whereby media
users can tie causes to effects, convert the complexity of events to a story that makes sense,
and thus satisfy their primitive urges to understand the physical and social worlds.
In their opinion, a narrative can be transmitted through any kind of oral or writ-
ten technology or medium (such as body language, utterance, book, TV, movie, digital
23
4 LOAD Game Studies
game). The above definition proposes a psychological (rather than a structural) approach
to narratives, which has two benefits: the definition of narrative at a psychological level
gives an understanding of human cognition and motivation and contributes to the ques-
tion of `why' narrative is important in understanding an event. It also makes it easier
to apply the definition to new interactive media.
As her dissertation project, Kocher (2006) developed the ludo-literary model, which aims
at arbitrating between ludologic and narratologic approaches by modifying the narra-
tology theory by Franz K. Stanzel according to media-specific characteristics
7
. Stanzel's
theory, which establishes three different types of narrative situations (authorial, first-
person, figural) has not been acknowledged in the field of game studies so far. Kocher
argues that the theory can be a good starting point for describing and analyzing narra-
tive sequences such as diary entries, freeze frames or cutscenes
8
(2006: 34):
Tageb¨
ucher, beispielhafte Ich-Erz¨
ahlsituationen, stellen durch ihre Innenperspektivik und die
Einladung zur Identifikation ein geeignetes Mittel dar, um den Tagebuch-Leser in seiner Ein-
stellung zur dargestellten Geschichte zu manipulieren. [D]ie Frage nach der Glaubw¨
urdigkeit
der Protagonisten, die in dieser subjektiven Form tendenziell vermindert ist, stellt eines der
literarischen als auch ludischen Schl¨
usselmomente beispielsweise der Myst -Reihe dar.
However, Kocher also identifies the flaws of Stanzel's theory:
· it does not involve the recipient (= player) and his/her reaction to any interactivity
strategies of a game
· only few types of games can be analyzed with this theory (mainly adventure and
role play games)
To overcome these flaws, Kocher created the so-called ludo-literary typological circle
9
to
whose circle-axis-intersections different types of games can be assigned (cf. Figure 4):
Interactivity.
Static refers to games in which the player has little influence on the
events in the game, whereas games are dynamic when the player has high influence on
these events.
7
A more detailed version of this model can be found in Kocher 2007.
8
Especially the cutscene will also be discussed as element of the cinematographic perspective on games
(in chapter 4.4).
9
German ludoliterarischer Typenkreis
24
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