How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds

Excerpt

List of tables

Table 1: Image schemata by Johnson (1990, p. 126) ... 40

Table 2: Metaphor analysis (collage 1bm0407h) ... 61

Table 3: Color theory (collage 1bm0407h) ... 62

Table 4: Communication model (collage 1bm0407h) ... 65

Table 5: Structural analysis (collage 1bm0407h) ... 65

Table 6: Interview (collage 1bm0407h) ... 68

Table 7: Aggregation of meanings (collage 1bm0407h) ... 70

Table 8: Metaphor analysis (collage 1bh0506f) ... 71

Table 9: Color theory (collage 1bh0506f) ... 73

Table 10: Communication model (collage 1bh0506f) ... 75

Table 11: Structural analysis (collage 1bh0506f) ... 75

Table 12: Interview (collage 1bh0506f) ... 77

Table 13: Aggregation of meanings (collage 1bh0506f) ... 79

Table 14: Metaphor analysis (collage 1bc0109m) ... 81

Table 15: Color theory (collage 1bc0109m) ... 83

Table 16: Communication model (collage 1bc0109m) ... 85

Table 17: Structural analysis (collage 1bc0109m) ... 85

Table 18: Interview (collage 1bc0109m) ... 89

Table 19: Aggregation of meanings (collage 1bc0109m) ... 91

Table 20: Metaphor analysis (collage 1bf1205i) ... 92

Table 21: Color theory (collage 1bf1205i) ... 94

Table 22: Communication model (collage 1bf1205i) ... 96

Table 23: Structural analysis (collage 1bf1205i) ... 96

Table 24: Interview (collage 1bf1205i) ... 99

Table 25: Aggregation of meanings (collage 1bf1205i) ... 101

Table 26: Metaphor analysis (collage 2bd0407r) ... 102

Table 27: Color theory (collage 2bd0407r) ... 103

Table 28: Communication model (collage 2bd0407r) ... 105

Table 29: Structural analysis (collage 2bd0407r) ... 105

Table 30: Interview (collage 2bd0407r) ... 108

Table 31: Aggregation of meanings (collage 2bd0407r) ... 110

Table 32: Metaphor analysis (collage 2bv0809r) ... 112

Table 33: Color theory (collage 2bv0809r) ... 113

Table 34: Communication model (collage 2bv0809r) ... 115

Table 35: Structural analysis (collage 2bv0809r) ... 115

Table 36: Interview collage (2bv0809r) ... 118

Table 37: Aggregation of meanings (collage 2bv0809r) ... 120

Table 38: Metaphor analysis (collage 2ba0309e) ... 122

Table 39: Color theory (collage 2ba0309e) ... 124

Table 40: Communication model (collage 2ba0309e) ... 126

Table 41: Structural analysis (collage 2ba0309e) ... 126

Table 42: Interview (collage 2ba0309e) ... 131

Table 43: Aggregation of meanings (collage 2ba0309e) ... 133

Table 44: Metaphor analysis (collage 2bm1005n) ... 135

Table 45: Color theory (collage 2bm1005n) ... 136

Table 46: Communication model (collage 2bm1005n) ... 138

Table 47: Structural analysis (collage 2bm1005n) ... 138

Table 48: Interview (collage 2bm1005n) ... 141

Table 49: Aggregation of meanings (collage 2bm1005n) ... 143

Table 50: Metaphor analysis (collage 2bk0109n) ... 145

Table 51: Color theory (collage 2bk0109n) ... 146

Table 52: Communication model (collage 2bk0109n) ... 148

Table 53: Structural analysis (collage 2bk0109n) ... 148

Table 54: Interview (collage 2bk0109n) ... 151

Table 55: Aggregation of meanings (collage 2bk0109n) ... 152

Table 56: Metaphor analysis (collage 2bm0907r) ... 154

Table 57: Color theory (collage 2bm0907r) ... 155

Table 58: Communication model (collage 2bm0907r) ... 157

Table 59: Structural analysis (collage 2bm0907r) ... 157

Table 60: Interview (collage 2bm0907r) ... 160

Table 61: Aggregation of meanings (collage 2bm0907r) ... 161

Table 62: Most common image schemata (visual metaphor analysis) ... 164

Table 63: Key brand meanings (visual metaphor analysis) ... 166

Table 64: Most common colors (color theory) ... 169

Table 65: Key brand meanings (color theory) ... 170

Table 66: Key brand meanings (communication model) ... 173

Table 67: Structural characteristics (structural analysis) ... 174

Table 68: Most common image schemata (verbal metaphor analysis) ... 178

Table 69: Key brand meanings (verbal metaphor analysis) ... 179

Table 70: Characteristics (collages & interviews) ... 180

Table 71: Most common image schemata (collages & interviews) ... 182

Table 72: Key brand meanings (collages & interviews) ... 187

List of figures

Figure 1: Collage 1bm0407h ... 60

Figure 2: Collage 1bh0506f ... 70

Figure 3: Collage 1bc0109m ... 80

Figure 4: Collage 1bf1205i ... 91

Figure 5: Collage 2bd0407r ... 101

Figure 6: Collage 2bv0809r ... 111

Figure 7: Collage 2ba0309e ... 120

Figure 8: Collage 2bm1005n ... 134

Figure 9: Collage 2bk0109n ... 144

Figure 10: Collage 2bm0907r ... 153

Introduction

1.1

Problem statement

A deeper understanding of how consumers think, feel and act is vital to the success of man-

agement and provides valuable information for managerial decision making in many areas of

marketing (Christensen & Olson, 2002; Keller, 2003). One key to this understanding is brand

knowledge. Keller (2003) stated that customer brand knowledge was the representation of a

brand in consumers' minds. A brand is more than a logo; it is a complex system of ideas, at-

tributes and associations (Gardner & Levy, 1955). Mental representations are experiences and

knowledge transformed and retained in mind for later retrieval (Tulving, 2007). All represen-

tations in the brain build up human memory (Dudai, 2007), which consists of multiple sys-

tems (Squire, 1987). In memory, experiences and knowledge can be represented verbally and

nonverbally (Wyer & Radvansky, 1999; Woodside, 2004) and can function at a conscious and

unconscious level (Paivio, 1986); consequently, different memory systems contain different

forms of knowledge (Rolls, 2007). Most of the earlier research on brand knowledge (Ander-

son & Bower, 1973; Gutman, 1982; Aaker, 1991; Keller, 1993) assumed that mental repre-

sentations were mainly verbal in nature (Costa, Schoolmester, Dekker & Jongen, 2003).

However, recent research in psychology and neurobiology has found that images play a major

role in consumers' minds (Costa et al., 2003), as most thoughts originate from images (Dama-

sio, 1994; Pinker, 1994; Zaltman & Coulter, 1995; Zaltman, 1997). Therefore this book fo-

cuses on a more visual-based view and takes Christensen and Olson's (2002) perspective of

brand knowledge into account, which stated that mental representations were so-called mental

models and rather image-based as opposed to word-based. This book uses the term "image

schema" coined by Johnson (1990) rather than mental models. An image schema is a chief

mental structure in the human mind based on experiences (Johnson, 1990). Unfortunately, a

substantial amount of relevant knowledge within consumers' minds, including image schema-

ta, is unconscious and cannot be retrieved, accessed and recalled by customers (Woodside,

2006). As a consequence, certain methods of retrieval are required (Woodside 2004, 2006),

such as projective techniques. As a part of qualitative research, projective techniques attempt

to circumvent this problem by disguising the true purpose of a study and using methods that

do not necessarily require verbal communication (Donoghue, 2000; Steinman, 2009). Such

techniques are able to uncover unconscious personal information about respondents by re-

moving social and psychological barriers (Will, Eadie, & MacAskill, 1996; Donoghue, 2000).

The method this book works with is the collage technique, an expressive projective method

(Rook, 2006). The collage technique requires participants to cut out pictures from magazines

and to assemble them on a piece of paper (Moisander & Valtonen, 2006). The collage gained

popularity during the last century and became an important medium of expression (Davis &

Butler-Kisber, 1999). It was first used as a therapeutic form of psychotherapy in the 70s

(Buck & Provancher, 1972; Olson, 2000) and gained popularity from then on (Moritani, 1993;

Beck, 1998; Takata, 2002; Johnson & Sullivan-Marx, 2006; Meguro, Ishizaki, & Meguro,

2009). However, it took the collage two decades to find its way into the field of marketing

(Zaltman & Coulter, 1995; Havlena & Holak, 1996). One of the main benefits of collages is

their ability to enable participants to communicate unconscious feelings, ideas and percep-

tions (Blümelhuber, 2004). Zaltman and Coulter (1995) and Havlena and Holak (1996) were

the earliest to utilize the collage technique in marketing research (Costa et al., 2003;

Moisander & Valtonen, 2006; Saunders, 2006). Zaltman & Coulter (1995) developed the

Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation Technique (ZMET), a tool that assisted in the understanding of

consumers' mental models by creating collages and eliciting metaphors. Havlena and Holak

(1996) explored nostalgia with the help of the collage technique. Although the collage tech-

nique is used as a popular marketing tool in several studies (Belk, Ger, & Askegaard, 1997,

2003; Costa et al., 2003; Chaplin & John, 2005; Saunders, 2009), two major shortcomings are

encountered across the board. Firstly, most studies base their analysis and interpretation of

collages on participants' statements, focusing primarily on verbal data. Secondly, few studies

provide a comprehensible guideline to assist in the interpretation of collages. Although visu-

als are central to meaning, understanding, and reasoning, none of the theories of meaning

widely used today offer any serious theory of interpretation (Johnson, 1990). The problem is

obvious; there is hardly any method for the analysis and interpretation of collages without the

use of any additional information given by respondents.

1.2

Aim of the book

The aim of this book is to create a multi-layered approach that facilitates the interpretation of

collages without the need of any additional information given by the participants, based on

metaphor analysis (Johnson, 1990; Seitz, 1998; Niedermair, 2001; Schmitt, 1997, 2003;

Schmieder, 2006; Lakoff & Johnson, 2008), color theory (Frieling & Auer, 1961; Itten, 1962;

Riedel, 1986; Braem, 1998; Heller, 1998), a communication model (Schulz von Thun, 1992;

Holzbrecher & Tell, 2006) and structural analysis. A standardized multi-layered approach to

collage interpretation independent from additional information could be a very valuable re-

source in marketing research.

This book attempts answer the following research questions:

- Is it possible to interpret collages without any additional information from respondents?

- What information can be gained from this interpretation?

- Are there any differences between the results of visual and verbal analysis?

The research questions are answered by a three-step procedure consisting of: a visual interpre-

tation of collages, a verbal interpretation of additional interviews given by participants, and a

comparison of the results of both interpretations. Note that the researcher strictly followed this

sequence in order to avoid any potential bias from interviews. Step three fulfills two purposes.

Firstly, it functions as a cross-validation procedure in order to assure validity, which is the

extent to which the results of the interpretation of collages coincide with the intended mean-

ing of their creators. This book assumes that the intended meanings of participants are stated

in the interviews. Beyond that, it determines the value of the multi-layered approach in direct

comparison to other procedures. Secondly, valuable information can be gathered by the com-

parison of visual and verbal interpretation results, as the differences identified may provide

interesting information on expressive capabilities of consumers. Differences could indicate

that either customers are not able to express their intended meanings, or that visual and verbal

analysis focuses on different kinds of information.

1.3

Outlook

Following the preface, chapter 2 introduces the reader to brand knowledge and how it is ac-

cessed as well as retrieved. The first section explains how consumers' minds work and

demonstrates the decisive role of mental representations. Different forms of representations

are stored in distinct systems of consumer memory forming diverse structures of brand

knowledge. The major distinctions are made between implicit/explicit (Schacter, 1987), de-

clarative/procedural (Cohen & Squire, 1980) and semantic/episodic memory (Tulving 1972).

The earlier perspectives of brand knowledge evolved from a verbal view-point, such as asso-

ciative network theory (Anderson & Bower, 1973) and means-end chain theory (Gutman,

1982), to a more visual view, including mental models (Christensen & Olson, 2002). The fol-

lowing section discusses the challenges faced in the retrieval of brand knowledge and ex-

plains when and why they occur. Following on from this, techniques for brand knowledge

retrieval, particularly verbal and nonverbal projective techniques are outlined. In the final

section there is a thorough discussion of history, characteristics, advantages, limitations and

applications of collages.

From accessing and retrieving brand knowledge in chapter 2, the book continues with

the analysis of brand knowledge in chapter 3. The chapter opens with an explanation of the

meaning of signs based on semiotics and hermeneutics. Semiotics is the study of signs (Mick,

1986) and is largely influenced by the Saussurean (1983) and Peircean (1965-67) paradigms.

Although semiotics is popular in investigating signs, the advantages are clearly outweighed

by the disadvantages, making it a rather unsuitable approach for analyzing visuals (Mick,

Burroughs, Hetzel, & Brannen, 2004; Rose, 2007). Hermeneutics, the theory of interpretation,

offers more opportunities in terms of examining meaning of signs (Madison, 1990). An im-

portant part of hermeneutics is the hermeneutic circle, which relates part and whole in a circu-

lar way (Hoy, 1982) and analyzes signs on three levels; namely, semantics, the meaning of

signs; pragmatics, the relationship of signs; and syntactics, the structure of signs (Niedermair,

2001).

Through the application of certain approaches a three-level analysis of signs is possi-

ble. The first is a metaphor analysis in order to interpret semantics of collages. The dominant

paradigm of metaphor analysis (el Refaie, 2003), the cognitive metaphor theory (Lakoff &

Johnson, 2008) is introduced in this section. A metaphor is the expression of one kind of thing

in terms of another (Lakoff & Johnson, 2008). The term "cognitive" stands for mental pro-

cesses. Metaphor analysis builds upon the concept of image schemata, as metaphors provide

vehicles for customers to express image schemata (Johnson, 1990). The aim of this procedure

is to identify these underlying schemata and to gain brand knowledge by examining existing

metaphors. Explaining the distinction between image schemata and metaphors is crucial and

done so in the continuation of this section. Examples are provided, characteristics and rela-

tionships are discussed, and the most common types of image schemata are outlined. Finally a

discussion on the singularities of visual metaphors concludes this section. The second ap-

proach is color theory, which provides additional information on semantics. In this section the

impacts of colors on customers and their behaviors are addressed (Riedel, 1986; Heller, 1998)

in addition to color theory's ability to reveal experiences, perceptions and meanings of brands

(Aslam, 2006). The section concludes with an illustration of the various meanings of the col-

ors white, black, red, blue, gray, green and yellow. The third approach is Schulz von Thun's

(1992) four sides model used to analyze the collage's pragmatics. The model assumes that

each piece of information possesses four different aspects of information: a matter, self-

revelation, relationship and appeal layer. The last approach in the interpretation of collages is

the identification of syntactics, based on the analysis of structural characteristics of collages

by the researcher. Chapter 4 covers the empirical element of this book. In this chapter the in-

terpretation process is explained in greater detail and subsequently applied to ten collages

created as part of an empirical study by Koll, von Wallpach and Kreuzer (2010). Firstly, the

ten collages are interpreted visually by using the approaches outlined above and secondly, the

interpretation process is applied to the ten interviews relating to the collages. Findings and

results of the visual and verbal interpretations for each approach are subsequently illustrated.

Beyond that, the results and meanings of visual and verbal analyses are compared in order to

gain further information.

Chapter 5 summarizes general results and findings and discusses limitations of the

single approaches in the interpretation process, whereas chapter 6 outlines managerial impli-

cations and future research.

Accessing and retrieving brand knowledge

2.1

Assumptions on brand knowledge representation

2.1.1

It is all about representations.

Accessing and retrieving brand knowledge provides valuable information for under-

standing consumer behavior in marketing (Christensen & Olson, 2002; Keller, 2003). To be

able to access and retrieve brand knowledge, it is important to find out how consumers pro-

cess and store information. When people experience their environment, neurons (nerve cells)

in the brain change (Tulving, 2007). This change of neurons forms mental representations,

which retain the experience and make it available for later retrieval (Tulving, 2007); this pro-

cess of forming permanent representations is called encoding (Hasselmo, 2007). A representa-

tion is a type of code that determines how elements are expressed in a certain system

(Kosslyn, 1994). Representations are unique to every situation and individual and structure

people's behaviors (Rose, 2007). Knowledge and experiences are encoded and stored as expe-

rience-dependent representations in human brains, constituting memory (Dudai, 2007).

Memory is the representation of past experiences lasting over time (Schacter, 2007), or in a

broader sense the capacity to encode, store and retrieve information (Tulving, 2000). Repre-

sentations make sense of people's everyday lives and are perceived as truth or fantasy, science

or commonsense and conveyed via speech, art, television, dreams and so on (Rose, 2007). In

short, mental representations display how brand knowledge is organized in memory

(Hutchinson & Eisenstein, 2008). The question of how consumers represent information men-

tally and how behavior is affected is not completely solved yet and still considered a problem

in neuroscience (Paivio, 1986; Kosslyn, 1994; Dudai, 2007). To provide a better understand-

ing of representations and information processing, the next section elaborates on different

forms of consumer memory.

2.1.2

Consumer memory

Memory is more than simply a record of our past; it is the controller of all human be-

havior, including speech, cognition and knowledge (Mantonakis, Whittlesea, & Yoon, 2008).

Memory consists of multiple dissociable brain systems capable of changing behavior, emotion

and thought based on experiences (Squire, 1987; Johnson, 2007). The human memory system

can be distinguished in terms of conceptual structures, types of content, types of processes

and brain structures (Johnson, 2007). The long-term memory is divided into declarative and

procedural memory (Cohen & Squire, 1980). The declarative memory contains memories

consciously acquired and stores all that we have learned about the world. The procedural

memory contains skills and abilities acquired unconsciously (Cohen & Squire, 1980). Declar-

ative knowledge is reflected in information that is retrieved consciously, whereas procedural

knowledge is reflected in cognitive acts, which are retrieved unconsciously (Wyer, 2008; Co-

hen & Squire, 1980). The explicit and implicit memory is similar to the declarative and pro-

cedural memory, and is about the role of consciousness in performance (Mantonakis, Whit-

tlesea, & Yoon, 2008). Schacter (1987) explained that explicit memory was the conscious

acquisition and recall of information in the past, while implicit memory referred to perform-

ing tasks based on past experiences not consciously recalled. The declarative memory is di-

vided further into semantic and episodic memory (Tulving, 2002). Semantic memory receives

and stores context-free and abstract knowledge such as words and verbal symbols, and their

meanings and relations and does not require effort to recall (Tulving, 1972, 2002). Episodic

memory contains context-related and event-related information about past experiences and

their relations and requires conscious recollection (Tulving, 1972, 2002; Mantonakis et al.,

2008). Representations in episodic memory are mainly stored in terms of interrelated stories

(Wyer, 2008) that can be described by spatial and temporal attributes (Tulving, 1972). Indi-

viduals have the potential for unlimited storage of episodic memory that can additionally be

easily retrieved, since everyday experiences are immediately and temporarily stored in the

hippocampus and then transferred to a long-term storage in the neocortex (Swap, Leonard,

Shields, & Abrams, 1991). Knowledge and experiences people possess are represented in dif-

ferent modalities in their minds; much knowledge is coded verbally, but a large portion is

nonverbal (Wyer & Radvansky, 1999; Woodside, 2004). Beyond that, verbal representations,

such as words, phrases, numbers and facts, as well as nonverbal representations, such as im-

ages, maps and feelings, both function at a conscious and unconscious level (Paivio, 1986).

This is due to the fact that memory is based upon two different thinking styles: rational think-

ing including analytical, deliberate and verbal processes, and experiential thinking involving

intuitive, narrative and nonverbal processes (Epstein, 1994). Experiential thinking forms im-

ages, metaphors and narratives, while rational thinking encodes reality in symbols, words and

numbers (Epstein, 1994). The specific thinking styles lead to different information processing

(Epstein, 1994), which results in different aspects of brand knowledge in each memory sys-

tem (Rolls, 2007). Some contain more verbal and conscious information, such as semantic,

explicit and declarative memory and others more nonverbal and unconscious data, such as

episodic, implicit and procedural memory (Cohen & Squire, 1980; Schacter, 1987; Tulving,

2002). As a consequence, different methods for retrieval are required (Woodside, 2004, 2006)

which are discussed in section 2.3. But first different theories of brand knowledge representa-

tions are outlined.

2.1.3

Brand knowledge structures

A major theory of brand knowledge in consumer research is the associative network

theory also known as the associative memory model (Anderson & Bower, 1973). This model

assumes that knowledge is organized in networks of nodes which create certain knowledge

structures (Henderson, Iacobucci & Calder, 2002). Nodes are units of information that are

activated by processing data or by activation of linked nodes (Keller, 1993) and can include

verbal descriptions, visual representations, sensory or emotional impressions (Supphellen,

2000). This theory has especially been adopted by the semantic/episodic view of memory

(Mantonakis et al., 2008). Keller (1993) based his model of brand knowledge on associative

network theory and conceptualized brand knowledge as "a brand node in memory to which a

variety of associations are linked" (Keller, 1993, p. 3). In general, Keller (2003) defined brand

knowledge in terms of "the personal meaning about a brand stored in consumer memory, that

is, all descriptive and evaluative brand-related information" (p. 596). Keller (1993) deter-

mined two major components of brand knowledge: brand awareness and brand image. Brand

awareness is the ability "to identify a brand under different conditions" (Keller, 1993, p. 3)

and consists of brand recognition and brand recall. Brand image is the "perception about a

brand as reflected by the brand associations held in consumer memory" (Keller, 1993, p. 3).

The types of brand associations (attributes, benefits or attitudes) differ along the dimensions

of favorability, strength and uniqueness. The content and structure of brand knowledge influ-

ence what comes to mind when customers think about a brand, and therefore impacts the

power of a brand and the effectiveness of marketing strategies (Keller, 1993, 2009). Aaker

(1991) based his model of brand equity on the associative memory model. Brand knowledge

forms the basis of brand equity (Keller, 2003) and is the value added or subtracted by assets

and liabilities linked to a brand (Aaker, 1991). In other words, brand equity is "the differential

effect of brand knowledge on consumer response to the marketing of the brand" (Keller,

1993, p. 8). Aaker (1991) determined brand awareness, brand associations, perceived quality,

and brand loyalty as the dimensions of brand equity. Earlier research (Aaker, 1991; Keller,

1993) focused more on verbal (as opposed to nonverbal) representations in associative net-

works and emphasized brand knowledge largely consisting of semantic memory. It neglects

nonverbal and unconscious information found in other memory systems, such as episodic

memory (Tulving, 1972). In recent years, there has been a shift from tangible and product-

related information to more abstract, intangible and product-unrelated aspects (Keller, 2009).

It is no longer only about facts linked to a brand, but about thoughts, feelings, perceptions,

images and experiences that form associative networks in consumer memory (Keller, 2009).

Despite this shift, these models still rely on the associative network theory, which emphasizes

information that is conscious and readily available, neglecting most unconscious information

(Anderson & Bower, 1973). Moreover this model focuses on information in nodes per se and

ignores structure and links between them (Christensen & Olson, 2002). A second theory of

representation of brand knowledge is the means-end chain theory (Gutman, 1982). This model

links attributes of products and brands to consequences which hold particular personal value.

The consequences provide valuable benefits for consumers leading to a choice of products

and brands based upon certain attributes (Gutman, 1982). Although this approach focuses

more on structure, it does not provide much information on content, as structure only deter-

mines how the content is organized and not its implicit meaning (Christensen & Olson, 2002).

2.1.4

Consumers think visually

A third perspective of brand knowledge is Christensen and Olson's (2002) focus on

structure and content. Christensen and Olson (2002) shifted further towards nonverbal brand

knowledge defining it as mental models, namely mental representations about brands and

products in memory. Product perceptions, brand attitudes and attributes as well as brand per-

sonalities interrelate and form mental models defining the meanings of a brand. This in turn

guides consumers' thinking, reactions and behavior relating to that brand (Christensen & Ol-

son, 2002). The advantage of this perspective is that mental models incorporate not only atti-

tudes, symbols and attributes, but also emotions, feelings, values, images, events and sensory

experiences (Christensen & Olson, 2002). Wyer and Radvansky (1999) supported this view

and stated that nonverbal brand knowledge consisted of mental models involving visual and

acoustic components. This definition of brand knowledge is consistent with recent develop-

ments in psychology and neurobiology, which find that the role of visuals in the context of

consumer behavior is more significant than first assumed (Costa et al., 2003). According to

Blümelhuber (2004) we live in a visual age and most thoughts occur from images (Damasio,

1994; Pinker, 1994; Zaltman & Coulter, 1995; Zaltman, 1997). The various structures of lan-

guage are often strongly linked to visual imagery (Davis & Butler-Kisber, 1999) and all kinds

of visual objects and arrangements carry certain meanings (Moisander & Valtonen, 2006).

Images can be sound and olfactory images, but more often they are visual (Damasio, 1994), as

a major part of stimuli (two-thirds) reach the brain through the visual system (Kosslyn, Seger,

Pani, & Hillger, 1990). Furthermore, humans primarily communicate nonverbally (Weiser,

1988). This is shown in studies that have found that only 7 to 30 per cent of meaning in mes-

sages is conveyed by verbal elements (Birdwhistell, 1970; Mehrabian, 1972). "Most thought,

emotion, and learning occur without awareness... [and] most mental life is tacit" (Zaltman,

1997, p. 426). Christensen and Olson (2002) took these assumptions into account stating that

the content of mental models is image-based as opposed to word-based. Mental models are

also referred to as: mental images (Wyer & Radvansky, 1999), cognitive structures (Christen-

sen & Olson, 2002), deep metaphors (Zaltman & Zaltman, 2008) or image schemata (John-

son, 1990). This book will use the term "image schema" to replace mental model henceforth.

Image schemata are recurring, dynamic and mental patterns that give coherence and structure

to experiences found in bodily movement, manipulation of objects and perceptual interac-

tions, helping consumers to reason and make sense of their experiences and environment

(Johnson, 1990). Image schemata are one key to brand knowledge, as they guide consumer

behavior and include valuable information about brands (Johnson, 1990;

Christensen & Ol-

son, 2002). Unfortunately, image schemata and many other relevant forms of knowledge are

unconscious (Woodside, 2006) and customers are not able or willing to interpret and report

certain aspects of brand knowledge by words alone (Costa et al., 2003; Rook, 2006). The fol-

lowing section elaborates on challenges in retrieving brand knowledge and explains when and

why they occur.

2.2

Challenges in retrieving brand knowledge

2.2.1

Overview

The expression of thought is a critical element in retrieving brand knowledge and is

often restricted by various barriers (Barner, 2008). Only a limited amount of relevant

knowledge and insight can be retrieved, reported and interpreted by customers, since individ-

uals have limited access to the unconscious, where a substantial amount of relevant thinking

processes occur (Woodside, 2006). Therefore customers can only retrieve and give reason for

actions that are verbalizable, accessible und plausible (Woodside, 2004, 2006). Methods of

direct questioning, which are techniques that do not disguise the true purpose of a study, only

work if consumers have extraordinary memories, profound self-knowledge, the capacity for

introspection, self-disclosure and excellent verbal skills (Rook, 2006). However consumers

are not always able to accurately retrieve, access and recall memory, because they simply do

not remember situations, are not aware of them or cannot access them (Rook, 2006). One ma-

jor reason is the transience of memory that is an ongoing decrease in memories of an individ-

ual (Schacter, 2001). This effect is enhanced if information is not properly encoded or over-

looked due to absent-mindedness. In contrast to forgetting information, traumata affect

memory by being remembered constantly (Schacter, 2001). Moreover, consumers differ in

their abilities to express and articulate answers, as individuals possess varying levels and abil-

ities in regards to vocabulary and expressiveness (Rook, 2006). Sometimes relevant infor-

mation is blocked by other memory systems, demonstrated by the tip of the tongue phenome-

non (Schacter, 2001). Another issue is the misattribution of current information onto past

events or vice versa, resulting in the déjà-vu phenomenon (Schacter, 2001). Finally consum-

ers are often unwilling to provide truthful information. If topics are too sensitive or privacy is

infringed, consumers feel uncomfortable providing answers and are inclined to lie, this is also

known as the social desirability bias (Rook, 2006). Heuristics and biases can be common

causes for memory errors; therefore the next section investigates these phenomena more

closely.

2.2.2

Heuristics and biases

Heuristics are cognitive shortcuts that generate judgments based on incomplete or

vague information and are the cause for many cognitive biases (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974).

A cognitive bias is an error in memory that leads to a distortion in perception, recall and

judgment (Wilson, 2002). The collage technique can assist in reducing the influence of heu-

ristics and biases (Rook, 2006). Tversky and Kahneman (1974) found three major heuristics.

Firstly, the representativeness heuristic; if a new product is similar to an old one that per-

formed very well, the consumer automatically believes that the new product will also perform

well. Secondly, the availability heuristic, which is based on the ease with which information

can be retrieved (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974). If many high-quality products of the same

brand can be recalled, the consumer automatically assumes that new products of this brand

are also high-quality. The last is the anchoring heuristic, causing consumers to form an initial

judgment about a product and later adjust the judgment from that point forward (Tversky &

Kahneman, 1974). Memory biases are one type of cognitive bias and influence memory-

related processes such as the content and recall of memories (Schacter, 2001). Consistency

and change biases are two of the most common biases and distort our view of past events,

making the past seem more different or similar to present than it actually was. Hindsight bias-

es are also common and cause the change of an early opinion once the actual outcome is

known. Last but not least an egocentric bias makes people see their past actions in a more

positive light than in reality, and stereotypical biases make people judge their environment

based on prejudices (Schacter, 2001). Another group of cognitive biases are attributional bias-

es, which influence people's understanding of what was responsible for a certain event

(Woodside, 2006). The fundamental attribution error for example, refers to underestimating

external and situational influences and overestimating personal influences. The self-serving

biases refer to attributing failures to situational influences and successes to personal factors.

The overconfidence bias consists of the overestimating the validity of one's own answers

(Wilson, 2002). Finally, the confirmation bias influences an individual's preference towards

information that coincides with their beliefs (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974). Most subjective

data gathering techniques are susceptible to cognitive biases (Woodside, 2004), which lead to

significant differences between explicit and implicit attitudes of consumers, since people are

not able or willing to report certain information (Woodside, 2006). Rook (2006) suggested the

use of projective techniques to eliminate or reduce cognitive biases and memory failures.

2.3

Brand knowledge retrieval

2.3.1

Qualitative research

In contrast to quantitative research, which quantifies data, qualitative research ex-

plores, describes and interprets psychological and sociological contexts by providing insights

and understanding of the problem setting (Malhotra & Peterson, 2006). What is distinctive

about qualitative research methods is their unstructured and open method of data collection,

which does not constrain customers in their answers and is appropriate for developing a richer

understanding of a certain context when facing a situation of uncertainty or, a situation that is

not yet fully exploited (Malhotra & Peterson, 2006). The procedures can be direct or indirect

depending on whether or not respondents are aware of the true purpose of the project (Rook,

2006). Direct measures, such as focus groups and in-depth interviews, question the respond-

ents straightforwardly on a topic, whereas indirect measures use disguised questions (Rook,

2006). Indirect research uses mainly projective approaches such as: association, completion,

construction or expressive techniques (Malhotra & Peterson, 2006; Rook, 2006).

2.3.2

Projective techniques

Projective techniques are types of qualitative research methods which are unstructured

and disguised. Vague, unstructured and ambiguous stimuli are used (Donoghue, 2000) to elic-

it unconscious personal information from consumers without their awareness (Donoghue,

2000; Steinman, 2009). Projection, is a defense mechanism and is regarded as the process of

attributing characteristics to others in order to protect oneself from revealing unpleasant per-

sonal characteristics and experiences (McGrath, Sherry, & Levy, 1993; Donoghue, 2000). In

Levy's projective hypobook (1985) he stated that "all behavioral manifestations of the human

being, including the least and the most significant, are revealing and expressive of his person-

ality" (p. 68). Consequently, projective techniques are able to uncover feelings, beliefs, atti-

tudes and motivations about respondents within a comfortable environment (Donoghue,

2000). Projective techniques assist in overcoming social and psychological barriers such as

awareness, social desirability issues and irrationality (Will et al., 1996). They are especially

useful in situations in which people are unable or unwilling to verbalize their feelings and

experiences, particularly if the subject addressed is sensitive (Khoo-Lattimore, Thyne, &

Robertson, 2009). Projective techniques are also used when consumers are unaware of their

underlying motives and attitudes (Donoghue, 2000) or are not particularly involved in a brand

or product (Rook, 2006). Originally, such techniques were used in clinical and developmental

psychology in the 40s and 50s to assist in the understanding of patients' underlying problems

(Donoghue, 2000; Rook, 2006). After World War II marketers, inspired by these methods and

convinced of their usefulness in marketing research, started adopting psychological practices,

such as association tests, completion tasks and expressive techniques (Khoo-Lattimore at al.,

2009). Within the field of projective techniques there are several methods of tapping different

forms of brand knowledge. Levy (1985) employed projective techniques to elicit positive,

negative, conscious and unconscious responses in order to get information about the percep-

tion of products and brands. Some of the most frequently used methods were: word associa-

tion, sentence completion, cartoon tests, storytelling and collage construction (Rook, 2006).

2.3.2.1

Verbal methods

In order to gain valuable brand knowledge, researchers must engage customers more

actively in the research process by enabling them to represent fully their thinking (Zaltman,

1997). As written above, memory systems contain specific brand knowledge, which in turn

requires specific retrieval methods (Woodside, 2004, 2006). Projective techniques can be dif-

ferentiated based on the modality and quantity of the data elicited (Rook, 2006).

Firstly, association tasks, such as word or picture association, require the respondent to an-

swer immediately to a presented stimulus (Will et al., 1996). Though these methods elicit lit-

tle information in terms of quantity, the information presented is indeed valuable in regards to

brand image and product attributes (Donoghue, 2000; Rook, 2006). Participants provide oral

or written responses, mainly conscious and verbal in nature (Schacter, 1987; Rook, 2006) and

stored in semantic memory (Tulving, 1972). Next, completion tasks require the respondent to

respond to a given stimulus, such as to a sentence or story (Will et al., 1996). The data from

sentence completion is similar to the data from association tasks (Rook, 2006). Story comple-

tion elicits mainly feelings and attitudes (Donoghue, 2000) and goes deeper into episodic

memory (Tulving, 1972). Thirdly, construction tasks include indirect questioning, such as

asking respondents to project their thoughts into a fictitious situation, or storytelling, such as

telling a story based on a visual stimulus (Will et al., 1996). It is assumed that respondents

attribute their feelings, attitudes and opinions to other individuals or situations during those

tasks (Donoghue, 2000). A considerable amount of data is provided and the brand knowledge

retrieved is verbal as well as nonverbal, depending on whether the story is written or spoken

(Rook, 2006). Storytelling is a useful method, as consumers organize and express much of

their experiences, information and knowledge in the form of narratives (Bruner, 1991; Padgett

& Allen, 1997; Adaval & Wyer, 1998). This is very effective, because listening to narratives

impacts decision-making and judgment, as it connects to one's own experiences (Swap et al.,

1991). Moreover during purchase decisions consumers often imagine situations of usage and

consequence, regarding the product in terms of stories or episodes (Adaval & Wyer, 1998).

Special types of storytelling are the Thematic Apperception Test (Morgan & Murray, 1935),

the photo-elicitation technique called autodriving (Heisley & Levy, 1991) and visual narra-

tives (Moisander & Valtonen, 2006). The TAT is a powerful tool to assess customers' atti-

tudes towards products, brands or advertisements by asking the respondent to devise a story

about a picture which usually shows a consumer in a usage situation (Schlackman, 1989).

Autodriving involves respondents telling a story about photographs showing themselves in

specific situations. This enables respondents to recall particular situations immediately (Blü-

melhuber, 2004). Visual narratives are similar to photo-elicitation techniques and require par-

ticipants to take photos, to bring them in, and to offer an explanation of the given photograph-

ic scenario (Moisander & Valtonen, 2006). To summarize, much brand knowledge is stored in

terms of narratives and storytelling and these methods can be a useful tool to retrieve those

aspects of brand knowledge (Blümelhuber, 2004).

2.3.2.2

Nonverbal methods

In marketing research most tools are verbocentric and for the most part rely on literal

language to collect, synthesize, and report responses, ideas and other data (Zaltman, 1997).

However, often consumers have thoughts, emotions and experiences they are unable to articu-

late because they are "too vague, too complex or too intense for ordinary speech" (Siegel-

mann, 1990, p. 7). Therefore methods that "engage people in ways that enable them to bring

unconscious states to a level of awareness" are needed (Zaltman, 1997, p. 427). Thought is

embedded in images, metaphors and emotions and research methods that align with those

elements, such as storytelling, role playing and collage construction, facilitate elicitation

(Rook, 2006). The value of a brand is determined by how that brand is perceived and by relat-

ed knowledge based on stories and experiences mainly stored nonverbally in episodic

memory (Blümelhuber, 2004). But as people are often unable to access and retrieve such

knowledge without other means, images can be used as stimuli for retrieval and as vehicles

for communication of emotional and intuitive aspects (Blümelhuber, 2004). This leads over to

the last category of projective techniques, namely expressive tasks, such as role-playing, psy-

cho-drawing, objects-drawing and collage construction. In role-playing the respondents are

asked to adopt the role of a brand or product, where the content and performance are analyzed

and provide information about how consumers see a certain brand or product (Steinman,

2009). Another visual projective technique is psycho-drawing, which is especially useful for

expressing moods and feelings (Schlackman, 1989). Respondents are asked to draw a picture

about a topic to express feelings and ideas (Schlackman, 1989). A similar drawing task is the

simple objects drawing method, where respondents are asked to draw objects that are im-

portant to them in a specific situation or location. By doing so the respondent reveals im-

portant information about his or her preferences (Schlackman, 1989). The collage technique,

which is the technique this book deals with, requires the respondents to construct a collage

with images out of magazines on a piece of paper based on a certain topic (Moisander & Val-

tonen, 2006). The images used symbolize cultural meanings and narratives to represent cus-

tomers' views of a topic and can be used subsequently as a stimulus for further probing

(Moisander & Valtonen, 2006). The collage became an essential innovation in the 20

centu-

ry, when researchers started appreciating their value as a form of creative visualization and as

an important medium of expression (Davis & Butler-Kisber, 1999). The collage technique is a

valid alternative to the TAT, autodriving and psycho-drawing (Havlena & Holak, 1996).

2.4

Characteristics and applications of collages in marketing

A picture is worth a thousand words; there is far less linguistic information in pictures

than verbal texts, but pictures contain much more of that information, which "is assimilatable

to the kind of information present in the perceptual world" (Sonesson, 1989, p. 10). The main

premise of visual research is "everything is text", implying that images can be read like words

and that meaning is derived from a medium by putting meaning into it (Blümelhuber, 2004).

These statements indicate that the collage technique may be an effective method for retrieving

brand knowledge.

2.4.1

History of collages

Eisner (1991) described collage as a flexible composition of pictures assembled grad-

ually and additively until an overall pattern is achieved. The collage originated in arts at the

beginning of the 20

century. It was first used by Pablo Picasso in 1912, and it soon became

one of the most essential twentieth-century art forms (Leland & Williams, 1994). Today, col-

lages are a unique form of modern art (Blümelhuber, 2004), although Davis (2008) described

them as an organizing principle, conceptual strategy or method rather than an art form. When

projective techniques became popular, psychologists became interested in the use of collages

for diagnostic and therapeutic means (Ikemi, Yano, Miyake, & Matsuoka, 2007) in order to

better understand patients (Will et al. 1996). The collage was first introduced by Buck and

Provancher (1972) as a therapeutic technique in an occupational therapy journal in the USA

(Takata, 2002). It eventually became known as the magazine picture collage technique and

steadily gained in popularity from then on (Takata, 2002). Buck and Provancher (1972) em-

ployed collages as an evaluative technique in assessing symptoms of male and female adult

psychiatric patients. They revealed that collages reflected the patient's psychodynamics, such

as self-image and the patient's mental organization (Buck & Provancher, 1972). At about the

same time Olson (2000) developed his "Collage Method", a psychotherapeutic technique that

helped creators to reconstruct the evolution of their psyche over time by enabling them to tell

personal stories via images (Olson, 2000). In Japan, collage technique became known as col-

lage therapy and was used as a method of psychological assessment (Moritani, 1993) and

psychotherapy in order to eliminate mental health problems by reconstructing an image of the

self (Takata, 2002). One of the major challenges was that patients often need help to perform

the task (Meguro et al., 2009). It has also been applied in art therapy as a means to address

emotional needs (Johnson & Sullivan-Marx, 2006) and in recreational activities for dementia

patients (Beck, 1998). Besides several fundamental researches and case studies on collages in

psychology (Buck & Provancher, 1972; Moritani, 1993; Beck, 1998; Olson, 2000; Takata,

2002; Johnson & Sullivan-Marx, 2006; Ikemi et al., 2007; Meguro et al., 2009), collage tech-

nique has also become a well-known tool in marketing research. The remainder of this section

illustrates features and applications of collages.

2.4.2

Characteristics, advantages and limitations of collages

As an essential innovation of the 20th century, researchers started appreciating collag-

es as a form of creative visualization and as an important medium of expression (Davis &

Butler-Kisber, 1999). "Collage is a heterogeneous, multivalent, multidimensional medium...

[that] readily produces effects of spontaneity, simultaneity, ephemerality, fantasy, and disori-

entation" (Davis & Butler-Kisber, 1999, p. 4). Collages are independent from articulateness as

well as assertiveness and are multidimensional, as they incorporate plurality, diversity and

richness (Blümelhuber, 2004). Collages promote creative, metaphorical thinking and trigger

tacit content as well as unexpected new associations (Davis & Butler-Kisber, 1999). Collages

are never complete and there is no right or wrong, although it is important to base them on an

idea (Blümelhuber, 2004). The interaction of colors, shapes, internal visual rhythms and bal-

ances produce integrated responses (Davis & Butler-Kisber, 1999). Creating a collage in-

volves a process of selection (Blümelhuber, 2004) and mechanisms of metaphor, analogy, and

allusion that bring hidden relationships and patterns to a level of awareness (Davis & Butler-

Kisber, 1999). Collage has become an exciting strategy for the exploration of memory, imagi-

nation, and experiential reflection (Davis, 2008). As no artistic skills are needed collages are

appropriate for all ages and mental states (Blümelhuber, 2004). Collages help to uncover

thoughts people are not aware of, reduce the blocking of undesired thoughts, stimulate people

to express different kinds of thoughts (Woodside, 2004) and are more immune from social-

desirability effects and conscious filtering (Barner, 2008).

A major limitation of collages and visual research in general is that collage research

cannot be standardized, as visuals are always subjective, interpretative and abstract (Sykes,

1990). Moreover, the difficulty and subjectivity of interpretation is enhanced, as collage con-

struction can be open-ended and almost anything is allowed (Malhotra & Peterson, 2006). In

order to control the construction process and facilitate subsequent analysis, a time limit should

be set and instructions should be given; for example the use of text passages and writings or

drawings on collages unnecessarily complicates them. However, if the respondents have in-

sufficient visual materials or too little time, creativity is constrained and they are not able to

express themselves as they would like to. The availability of enough pictures is especially

important, as it determines the look and content of a collage. In terms of analysis, there is the

risk of analysis bias (Malhotra & Peterson, 2006) due to differences in the conditions of the

researcher, as well as situations in which the interpretation processes are performed. Differ-

ences may occur depending on the time of the day, physical condition of the researcher and

external distractions. As a consequence the interpretation results can vary slightly for different

data and samples (Sykes, 1990). In general, it is important to devise an interpretation proce-

dure that is not too complicated and can easily be repeated for each collage, allowing interpre-

tation based on specific criteria. This book follows a multi-layered interpretation process that

is applied identically on each collage.

2.4.3

Collages applied in marketing

Various studies (Costa et al., 2003; Moisander & Valtonen, 2006; Saunders, 2006) re-

ferred to Zaltman and Coulter (1995) and Havlena and Holak (1996) as the first to use the

collage technique in marketing research. Zaltman and Coulter (1995) developed the Zaltman

Metaphor Elicitation Technique (ZMET), a tool designed to produce insights into consumers'

mental models by using nonverbal channels and metaphors (Zaltman & Coulter, 1995; Khoo-

Lattimore at al., 2009) that represent thoughts and feelings about the personal relevance of a

topic (Christensen & Olson, 2002). The first stage of the method starts with storytelling based

on images collected beforehand by participants. In the second stage, missed images that peo-

ple would have liked but could not find are discussed. Stage three divides the images into

meaningful piles, whereas stage four elicits constructs based on the means-end chain theory

(Gutman, 1982). Fifth, the most and least representative pictures are chosen and discussed.

Sixth, a summary of the topic discussed is provided and the chosen pictures are assembled

into a collage (Zaltman & Coulter, 1995; Zaltman, 1997). Next, key themes are identified and

tangible and intangible data is categorized and coded (Zaltman & Coulter, 1995). Finally, a

consensus map is constructed. The ZMET is useful for gathering information concerning

product-purchase and product-usage as well as perceptions of brands, products and adver-

tisements (Zaltman & Coulter, 1995). One of the major limitations of the ZMET is its labor

and time-insensitivity and its need for special training in interviewing and data analysis

(Catching-Castello, 2000). Moreover, Zaltman (1997) argued that four or five participants

were enough to be representative, a rather doubtful assumption (Catching-Castello, 2000).

Furthermore customers are forced to focus on a few images only, which can potentially re-

strict creativity and mislead findings. Participant fatigue could augment this effect (Catching-

Castello, 2000). Beyond this the ZMET bases its interpretation completely on the statements

given by participants and does not offer a guideline in regard to how the analysis of data is

undertaken. Havlena and Holak (1996) applied collages to explore the nature and structure of

nostalgia. Twenty graduate students were assigned to groups of four and asked to create a

collage about nostalgia. The students had thirty minutes and were observed and videotaped.

At the end of the thirty minutes the groups explained and presented their collages to a panel of

researchers (Havlena & Holak, 1996). Certain types of images, such as black and white pic-

tures, and different classes of nostalgia, such as personal and cultural nostalgia were found.

Furthermore, persons, products and activities familiar from childhood were frequently related

to nostalgia (Havlena & Holak, 1996). Rickard (1994) applied collages in combination with

focus groups to obtain better qualitative data to improve car advertisements. The intention

was that creating a collage would support the focus group participants' discussion by provid-

ing a vehicle to talk through. The results showed that emotions were a major determinant in

car purchases. This knowledge helped car producers to better adapt their advertisements to

customers (Rickard, 1994). Costa et al. (2003) used the same approach and combined collages

with focus groups to investigate feelings, emotions and experiences related to eating habits.

The 29 Dutch respondents were assigned to groups of three and asked to construct a collage

concerning the topic of either cooking a meal or having a ready meal. The respondents were

asked to put the more important images in the centre. Cooking magazines were intentionally

excluded to ensure that the participants did not only choose images from that particular re-

source (Costa et al., 2003). Between the collage task and the focus group, each group present-

ed its collage briefly. Following that, the collages, presentations and discussions were con-

tent-analyzed and patterns were identified. The key findings were categorized based on their

relative importance. The collages served as a stimulus for the discussion and complemented

the focus groups very well. The collages enabled the expression of unconscious aspects and

their value to product and advertising research was confirmed (Costa et al., 2003). Belk et al.

(1997, 2003) used collages to investigate consumption desire among customers. The partici-

pants were students from three different countries: USA, Denmark and Turkey. The research-

ers came from the same three countries, consequently avoiding any issues with translation.

The collage creation was one part of several projective techniques, including written storytell-

ing, association tasks and drawing (Belk et al., 1997, 2003). The respondents were encour-

aged to create collages expressing feelings and dreams about desire and then subsequently

record their interpretations. As a result consumer desire was identified as a powerful and

mainly positive emotion overshadowing other emotions. There were larger differences be-

tween men and women than between cultures and a cycle of desire was identified (Belk et al.,

1997, 2003). Blümelhuber (2004) assumed that brand knowledge was represented in form of a

collage in consumers' minds and encouraged the creation of physical collages to recreate this

knowledge of brands. Chaplin and John (2005) used collages in studies with children in order

to find out whether self-brand connections (a brand/product used to represent oneself) devel-

oped over time. The method is especially useful in research with children, as creating a col-

lage is a fun and easy task for a child. However, children are easily influenced by peers or

parents, so it is important to ensure that they are able to fully focus on their task without any

distractions. The general findings showed that the older the children the more self-brand con-

nections existed and the more thorough they were (Chaplin & John, 2005). Saunders (2009)

applied the collage technique to collect and evaluate scenario planning information. This was

in order to overcome any potential communication, topic sensitivity, memory and qualitative

richness problems. Saunders (2009) found out that collage construction was well suited to the

objectives of scenario planning, as long as the participants were well informed and willing

and able to perform the task. Kriechbaum-Vitellozzi and Kreuzbauer (2009) investigated con-

sumption behavior of refugees in Western countries. The study was conducted in a refugee

shelter in Austria. It showed that the collage technique was well suited for overcoming com-

munication problems, as the refugees had different cultural and social backgrounds and were

not all proficient in German. The most difficult tasks were getting access to the refugees and

building trust in order to ensure their cooperation. The collage technique provided deep in-

sights into the participants' lives (Kriechbaum-Vitellozzi & Kreuzbauer, 2009).

This section shows that several studies in various fields of marketing research use col-

lage construction as a data collection tool. Nevertheless two major shortcomings are encoun-

tered regularly in those works. Firstly, almost every analysis depends for the most part on

participants' statements leading to a focus on verbal data. If there is an analysis of visuals,

researchers have a large dependence on statements given by the participants in the form of

interviews or written explanations. This focus on verbal data impedes the identification of

nonverbal knowledge. It would be more interesting to find out whether it is possible to gather

knowledge with an analysis of visuals only, which implies a larger shift from verbal to non-

verbal data. Secondly, in most studies the interpretation criteria applied is vague, untranspar-

ent or even missing. Hardly any research actually shows how the analysis is done, or provides

a detailed guideline for the interpretation of a collage. A standardized approach to collage

interpretation could be very useful in marketing research and would facilitate interpretation

procedures.

Analyzing visually retrieved brand knowledge

After discussing how to access and retrieve brand knowledge, this chapter deals with

the approaches used for the interpretation of brand knowledge retrieved via collages. It begins

with an introduction to signs and their meanings and continues with a detailed theoretical ex-

planation of the approaches applied.

3.1

Understanding the meaning of signs: semiotics and hermeneutics

Since all knowledge is based on signs and semiotics is the study of signs (Mick, 1986),

knowledge is exposed to semiotic interpretation (Rose, 2007). As such, this book attempts to

deduce knowledge in terms of images in collages, and an elaboration on the concepts of signs

and their meanings is provided at this point.

3.1.1

Semiotics

Semiotics is one of the richest and oldest theories for understanding meaning and in-

vestigates the nature of meaning and how it is acquired by reality (Mick, 1986; Mick & Os-

wald, 2006). Mick (1986) stated that semiotics "analyzes the structures of meaning-producing

events, both verbal and nonverbal" (p. 197). Generally speaking semiotics is the study of

signs and their meanings (Chandler, 2006; Mick, 1986). At the beginning of the 20

century

new developments in semiotics appeared. Saussure (1983) and Peirce (1965-67), two major

contributors, found two dominant paradigms (Mick et al., 2004). The Saussurian paradigm

(1983) was mostly used in structural and text-interpretive analyses (Mick et al., 2004), as it

focused on the linguistic sign and privileged the spoken word (Mick, 1986). Saussure (1983)

assumed that meaning was formed only through the relationships and interactions of words

and not through words per se (Mick, 1986). Saussure's paradigm (1983) was a two-part model

consisting of the signifier, the form of the sign, such as a sound or image, and the signified,

the concept or object referred to (Rose, 2007). The sign itself, which is conventional and arbi-

trary, results from the relationship between signifier and signified (Chandler, 2006). A sign is

a fundamental unit of meaning (Rose, 2007) and can be visual or textual and ranges from pic-

tures and drawings to words and texts (Chandler, 2006). Saussure (1983) mainly emphasized

the structure, symbolism and cultural impact of communication and meaning (Mick et al.,

2004). Fields of application of this paradigm are brand strategy research and consumer behav-

ior. In brand strategy, brands are seen as systems of signs relating brand attributes to consum-

er needs. In consumer behavior however, it is applied to diagnosing and developing commu-

nication strategies (Mick & Oswald, 2006). Unfortunately there are several drawbacks related

to this paradigm. First of all, it is not clear whether this theory of language is even able to deal

with visuals (Rose, 2007), as the relationships between signifier and signified differ between

written/spoken and visual signs (Iversen, 1986). Secondly, Saussure's (1983) theory provided

a static notion of how signs work and neglected changes in meanings (Rose, 2007). Thirdly,

while Saussure (1983) only explained how systems of arbitrary signs worked, Peirce (1965-

67) provided a much richer typology of signs, explaining how different modes of signification

worked (Iversen, 1986). Another advantage of Peirce's paradigm (1965-67) is that it was

more appropriate for conceptual treatises and qualitative and quantitative analyses (Mick et

al., 2004). This leads to the second important paradigm, a three-part model, consisting of: the

representamen, the form of the sign; the interpretant, the sense of the sign; and the object, the

concept or object referred to (Mick & Oswald, 2006). Again the sign itself arises from the

relationship between those three parts (Mick, 1986). Peirce (1965-67) identified three catego-

ries of signs in his analyses, namely: icon, index and symbol. These categories are distin-

guished by the different relations between the signifier and signified (Rose, 2007). Iconic

signs imitate a concept or object, indexical signs are inherently related to a concept or object,

and symbolic signs are related to a concept or object in a conventional and arbitrary manner

(Chandler, 2006; Rose, 2007). Fields of application are product and logo design, advertising,

and consumer behavior, where it is used to develop meanings and functions in design, to de-

duce meaning from ads and to help understanding consumption experiences (Mick & Oswald,

2006). This demonstrates that semiotics is a popular method that offers vocabulary and tools

for decompounding images and exploring how they work (Moisander & Valtonen, 2006).

However, although semiotics can be useful in investigating signs and their meanings in sever-

al fields of marketing, the disadvantages outweigh the advantages. Firstly, existing research is

eclectic and fragmented due to the magnitude and complexity of works (Mick et al., 2004)

which causes concerns about representativeness and replicability of analyses (Rose, 2007).

Also, there is a density of terminology in semiotics that is confusing, unnecessary and diffi-

cult to understand, making the simple complex, due to the fact that most semiotic studies in-

vent their own analytical terms (Rose, 2007). Lastly, many descriptions and applications are

cryptic and do not go beyond lexicographic or taxonomic stages of knowledge development

(Mick et al., 2004). Moreover, semiotics neglects the social environment within which visual

images are produced and interpreted (Rose, 2007) and many works are unknown, outdated,

constrained in length, or focus on only one country or topic (Mick et al., 2004). Finally, re-

search in semiotics has never produced systematic theorems and will remain only an "integra-

tor of previously compartmentalized, incongruent, or unjuxtaposed theories, models, methods,

concepts and so on" (Mick, 1986, p. 209).

3.1.2

Hermeneutics

Semiotics is the basis for any interpretative work, as it deals with an analysis of signs

and their meanings; however the drawbacks make it hardly suitable for analyzing visuals.

Hermeneutics, the "theory of understanding and interpretation of linguistic and non-linguistic

expressions" (Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy, 2005), is related to the science of semiot-

ics and offers more opportunities (Madison, 1990). Hermeneutics concentrates only on certain

aspects of semiotics, namely interpretation and understanding of signs, in order to grasp the

creator's intended meaning of a text or in this case of a collage (Madison, 1990). The interpre-

tation procedure applied in this book follows the concept of the hermeneutic circle. The her-

meneutic circle is a process by which understandings are formed and understood as a continu-

ous part-to-whole and whole-to-part movement (Thompson, Pollio, & Locander, 1994). There

are various definitions of the hermeneutic circle, depending on the use, purpose and perspec-

tive of this approach (Hoy, 1982; Thompson et al., 1994). "In order to understand the whole,

it is necessary to understand the parts, while to understand the parts, it is necessary to have

some comprehension of the whole" (Hoy, 1982, p. vii). In other words, single elements aid in

tracing meaning of the overall context and meaning of the overall context helps to gain under-

standing of single elements (Holzbrecher & Tell, 2006). In general, part and whole are related

in a circular way when it comes to the process of understanding and interpretation (Hoy,

1982). The circle developed from the principle of understanding a text, to the principle of un-

derstanding one's own nature and situation (Hoy, 1982; Thompson et al., 1994). It can be ap-

plied to many fields of study dealing with various subjects (Holzbrecher & Tell, 2006). Two

examples should make this concept clearer. In the hermeneutics of paintings or photo analysis

the context refers to the total stock of paintings from a certain era, whereas the part is a single

painting from this era. The aim is to establish the extent to which the single picture represents

the era and by what characteristics. As a consequence the understanding of this era and of

each single picture itself is enhanced (Holzbrecher & Tell, 2006). In educational studies the

context may refer to the work with children as a whole. The parts would be single processes

within the context, such as group dynamics, learning processes and the usage of tools. The

objective is to establish how the parts are related to the context and vice versa (Holzbrecher &

Tell, 2006). Researchers are not able to interpret a collage by only looking at its single images

in isolation; it is necessary to relate the images to each other as well as the overall context

(Moisander & Valtonen, 2006). In this book parts refer to the single elements and objects in a

collage, whereas the context refers to the collage in its entirety and the context within which it

was created. An understanding of single pictures within a collage is crucial in the under-

stading of the entire collage. By the same token, the whole collage and its context are im-

portant in the understanding of the single pictures chosen. The hermeneutic circle involves

analyzing a text or picture on three levels and links the concrete to the overall context or situa-

tion. The three levels of language, developed by Morris (1972), are semantics, pragmatics,

and syntactics and make up the structure and meaning of a text (Niedermair, 2001). Semantics

is the meaning and signification of signs not related to the context; pragmatics is the meaning

of signs based on context, sender, receiver and their relationships; and syntactics is the struc-

ture of signs (Niedermair, 2001).

However, the concept of the hermeneutic circle is not undisputed. Firstly, it is difficult

to "enter" the circle, as this is only possible with prior knowledge (Bardzell, 2009). "You

can't understand Shakespeare without being in a position to understand Shakespeare; how can

you get in such a position without reading Shakespeare?" (Bardzell, 2009). Even more im-

portant is the fact that the circle interferes with objective knowledge, as reasoning is circular

and does not allow for justification (Bardzell, 2009). Therefore, opponents encourage re-

searchers to break out of the circle as it is only possible through the aid of empirical science,

which requires going beyond personal interpretation and subjectivity (Taylor, 1971). But pure

empiricism does not work, as it is not possible to break out of the circle at all (Bardzell,

2009). Personal understandings are always subjective and never free of individual assump-

tions (Thompson et al., 1994), as "a person's understanding of a situation results from an in-

terpretation that is based on cultural traditions of meaning" (Thompson et al., 1994, p. 434).

However, proponents state that it is possible to achieve scientific progress even within the

hermeneutic circle (Bardzell, 2009). The major benefits are that the circle enhances percep-

tion and makes scientific works susceptible to reflection and critique. It also allows participa-

tion in the development of a certain field of study; it enables researchers to use contributions

of others in their works, to produce knowledge, and to critique and to improve others' works

(Bardzell, 2009).

In order to be able to apply the concepts of the hermeneutic circle and three-level

analysis on collages, certain methods are required. Metaphor analysis and color theory are

used to analyze semantics of the collage by identifying and interpreting image schemata and

major colors used throughout. The communication model by Schulz von Thun (1992) analyz-

es the collage's pragmatics by investigating the context and relationships of the collage and its

creator. To conclude, structural analysis identifies the syntactics of the collage. The remainder

of this chapter explains the relevant concepts in detail.

3.2

Metaphor analysis in interpreting collages

Collage creation, the technique this book examines, is a method that reproduces men-

tal images and generates visual metaphors (Rook, 2006). Metaphors offer ways to penetrate

consumers' thoughts and serve as windows into people's minds (Joy, Sherry, Venkatesh, &

Deschenes, 2009). Beyond that, much brand knowledge is embedded in mental images, meta-

phors and emotions, as people mainly process information metaphorically (Zaltman, 1997).

Metaphor analysis is the first concept used in the interpretation process of collages, as sys-

tematic elicitation and analysis of metaphors significantly augment the knowledge gained

(Zaltman, 1997; Woodside, 2004; Rook, 2006). In general, metaphor analysis is an attempt to

understand, to clarify, to unfold and to interpret metaphors (Niedermair, 2001). More specifi-

cally metaphor analysis is known as a qualitative research method based on the cognitive

metaphor theory by Lakoff and Johnson (2008) (Niedermair, 2001).

3.2.1

Metaphors as cognitive constructs

Metaphors play an essential role in human communication, as they reduce complexity

by facilitating expression and understanding (Schmieder, 2006). Metaphors highlight certain

aspects and minimize others via projecting certain features of one object onto another (Barner,

2008; Schmieder, 2006). The novelty and abstractness of certain situations may not enable

customers to express genuine feelings by words alone (Joy et al., 2009) and may require vehi-

cles for expressing situations that are difficult to communicate (Barner, 2008). Metaphors

possess such qualities (Barner, 2008) and provide a simple method to make sense of everyday

experiences (Lakoff & Johnson, 2008). They enable people to convey a complex situation

instantly with few words (Barner, 2008; Joy et al., 2009) by connecting a broad array of inter-

related thoughts, feelings and beliefs (Barner, 2008).

Aristotle laid the foundation for today's definitions of metaphors by stating that a met-

aphor was the transfer of one word to another word (Niedermair, 2001). In the 1980s re-

searchers (Johnson, 1990; Lakoff and Johnson, 2008) started recognizing metaphors as cogni-

tive phenomena and structures, which were part of thought rather than language (el Refaie,

2003). The cognitive metaphor theory by Lakoff and Johnson (2008) connected linguistics

and social sciences and provided new opportunities for operationalizing metaphor analysis

(Niedermair, 2001). Today, most approaches to metaphor analysis are based on this concept,

including Schmitt's (1997, 2003), which is applied in this book. In a cognitive sense, meta-

phor analysis describes the understanding and experiencing of a concept by transferring one

concept for another (Seitz, 1998; Lakoff & Johnson, 2008). Lakoff and Johnson (2008) devel-

oped their metaphor theory by defining metaphors as a matter of concept, such as an event,

activity, idea, or emotion. According to this, people understand the environment through ex-

periences that are organized in terms of metaphorical concepts (Seitz, 1998). Those metaphor-

ical concepts are expressed systematically and metaphorically by language making metaphors

an inevitable part of human language, mind and communication (Lakoff and Johnson, 2008).

In short, Lakoff and Johnson (2008) identified metaphorical concepts via language. This book

applies this theory on collages and investigates visual elements on collages instead of spoken

or written words. The example "argument is war" by Lakoff and Johnson (2008) should assist

in the understanding of this rather complex construct. "Argument is war" is a metaphorical

concept, in which the concept of argument is transferred to and structured by the concept of

war. This means that people's actions, behaviors and understandings during an argument are

structured by the "argument is war" concept (Lakoff and Johnson, 2008). This is seen in ex-

pressions used in everyday life such as "attack the weak point in an argument", "win an ar-

gument" or "shoot down arguments". Note that it is not about the very words used, but about

the concept behind these expressions (Zaltman & Zaltman, 2008). Other examples are "life is

a journey", "ideas are products" and "eyes are containers". This shows that metaphors are

"pervasive in everyday life, not just in language, but also in thought and action" (Lakoff &

Johnson, 2008, p. 12) and that "the way we think, what we experience and what we do every

day is very much a matter of metaphor" (Lakoff & Johnson, 2008, p. 11).

3.2.2

Metaphors versus image schemata

This section explains the relationship between metaphorical concepts, image schemata

and metaphors. Broadly speaking metaphorical concepts are based on image schemata and

expressed by metaphors. Image schemata are "a pervasive, irreducible, imaginative structure

of human understanding that influences the nature of meaning and constrains our rational in-

ferences" (Johnson, 1990, p. xii). Put another way image schemata are unconscious and ab-

stract structures of experiences, images or perceptions (Johnson, 1990) that emerge from in-

teractions between brain, body, and society (Zaltman & Zaltman, 2008). A metaphor is "un-

derstanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another" (Lakoff & Johnson, 2008,

p. 13). Metaphors provide a vehicle for expressing experiences, images or perceptions, struc-

tured as image schemata in mind, by projecting attributes of one experience, image or percep-

tion onto one of a different kind (Johnson, 1990). Metaphors give customers an opportunity to

give voice to their mental representations (Johnson, 1990). The terms "image schema" and

"metaphor" are used differently in literature. This book uses the term "image schema" to de-

note a chief cognitive structure in the human mind that is fundamental to our understanding of

what and how we perceive (Zaltman, 1997), and the term "metaphor" to denote a verbal or

visual expression of an image schema. Zaltman and Zaltman (2008) provided another defini-

tion by defining three levels of metaphorical thinking, namely: surface metaphors (meta-

phors), metaphor themes (metaphorical concepts) and deep metaphors (image schemata). Sur-

face metaphors are used in everyday language and people are aware of using them, whereas

deep metaphors underlie metaphor themes and are unconscious. "Money is a resource" is a

deep metaphor, providing the basis for the metaphor theme "money is liquid", which in turn

offers the foundation for the surface metaphor "money runs through his fingers" (Zaltman &

Zaltman, 2008). On this basis metaphors and image schemata are related phenomena that

work on different levels within the human brain. As image schemata are found in memory

systems which function at a more nonverbal and unconscious level, the conscious concept of

metaphor is needed as a vehicle of expression (Johnson, 1990; Epstein, 1994). Therefore met-

aphors essentially represent our thinking processes and can be found in every form of com-

munication (el Refaie, 2003), implying that metaphors are key to accessing image schemata,

which in turn allows access to brand knowledge (Zaltman, 1997). To summarize, image

schemata are the abstract concepts that make sense of our experiences, and metaphors are the

instruments we use to express and react to those concepts (Johnson, 1990). Something un-

known, unresolved or problematic is represented in terms of something familiar (el Refaie,

2003). The actual referent of a metaphor is an abstract concept, whereas the figurative term is

related to basic human experience (Lakoff & Johnson, 2008). This book assumes that visual

elements on collages are metaphors based on image schemata and that metaphors help to re-

veal image schemata and their meanings and therefore brand knowledge. The remainder of

this section illustrates different types of image schemata and should assist in clarifying these

concepts.

3.2.2.1

Types of image schemata

Johnson (1990) provided the following list of image schemata:

Container Balance

Compulsion

Blockage Counterforce

Restraint

removal

Enablement Attraction Mass-Count

Path Link

Center-Periphery

Cycle Near-Far Scale

Part-Whole Merging Splitting

Full-Empty Matching

Superimposition

Iteration Contact Process

Surface Object

Collection

Table 1: Image schemata by Johnson (1990, p. 126)

To provide a better understanding of those concepts, the force schema is explained in

greater detail. Force is one of the most common schemata and can be divided into several

subcategories including: counterforce, blockage, enablement, compulsion, restraint removal,

and attraction (Johnson, 1990). Each schema deals with certain experiences people encounter

and structures them. Counterforce schemata refer to experiences related to forces that work

against each other, such as a box fight, a car accident, or strong winds (Johnson, 1990).

Blockage deals with obstacles resisting a force, such as a river, a wall, or a dead end. Ena-

blement is the experience of being able to do something and to perform an action, such as

driving a car, picking up a stone or writing a text. Compulsion is a schema referring to exter-

nal forces, such as winds, water, or other crowds. Restraint removal is related to the block-

age and enablement schemata and occurs when people are able to do something because a

potential barrier is missing, such as entering a building, or crossing a street. Attraction repre-

sents a force that has attractive power, such as a magnet, or a vacuum cleaner (Johnson,

1990). Force is the main image schema underlying the "argument is war" concept and can be

expressed by various spoken or written metaphors. Therefore the expressions used allow for

identifying the underlying image schemata. "He attacked every weak point in my argument"

is based upon the counterforce schema. "I demolished his argument" has the restraint removal

schema as its basis. "She had no chance to resist my arguments" is related to compulsion. "He

defended his arguments strongly" builds up on the blockage schema. Different metaphorical

concepts have different schemata underlying: "Life is a journey" (path schema), "ideas are

products" (transformation schema, process schema) and "eyes are containers" (container

schema).

Another very common schema is balance and refers to experiences that involve keep-

ing the balance and being in equilibrium (Johnson, 1990). This involves physical equilibria,

such as standing straight or riding a bike; psychic equilibria, such as finding the balance be-

tween work and free time; and perceptual equilibria, such as looking at an asymmetrical pic-

ture. The third schema illustrated is the path schema structuring people's spatial and tem-

poral experiences (Johnson, 1990). The path schema consists of three parts: a starting point,

an end point, and a route connecting those points. There are physical paths such as from your

bed to your bathroom, from your apartment to your garage, or from your block to your work

place; as well as imaginative ones such as from your balcony to the stars above, or from this

moment to a moment in the future (Johnson, 1990). The container schema represents con-

tainment consisting of an inside, an outside, and boundaries such as a building or a purse

(Raubal, Egenhofer, Pfoser, & Tryfona, 1997). In addition to this bodies and minds are con-

tainers as well (Johnson, 1990). The part-whole schema deals with the decomposability of

entities, such as a tree consists of leafs, branches and roots, or a nation and its states (Rosa,

2001). The center-periphery schema is a space schema and defines distances, both physical

and mental. People experience their world from an individual perspective and therefore some

experiences and persons are more important or central than others (Johnson, 1990). The

transformation schema is about changes. If a person changes in shape, time passes by, or a

group of people alters their attitudes, the transformation schema is at work. The scale schema

is best described by the "more is up" metaphor (Lakoff & Johnson, 2008). The schema is

about increasing and decreasing substances, such as filling up a glass of water; or degrees of

intensity, such as temperature (Johnson, 1990). The more water or temperature the larger the

scale becomes. Furthermore the cycle schema represents all kinds of circles; temporal ones,

such as time; natural ones, such as the tides; or conventional ones, such as politics and culture

(Johnson, 1990). The link schema is omnipresent and a very dominant schema. Links repre-

sent various kinds of connections, including: temporal, causal, spatial or functional connec-

tions. Without links mankind would not exist (Johnson, 1990). The identity/matching sche-

ma consists of two single schemata found by Johnson (1990) that are combined for the pur-

poses of this book. This schema is about the similarity and fit of two or more subjects (John-

son, 1990). For example, two persons are similar in their appearance/behavior or a man and a

woman are well suited. Moreover, the splitting schema shows the divisibility of entities

(Johnson, 1990). For example a crowd can be divided into men and women, or into brunette,

blond, black and red haired. However, the list of image schemata by Johnson (1990) can be

extended freely in order to better fit the working method or subject treated. Raubal et al.

(1997) added a front-back and verticality schema, whereas Rosa (2001) modified the path

schema and added the agency schema. Amant, Morrison, Chang, Cohen and Beal (2006)

identified eight key-schemata, namely space, force, containment, locomotion, balance, identi-

ty, multiplicity, and existence.

According to collages, it is assumed that participants use visual metaphors in the form

of images as vehicles to express their underlying image schemata. For example, using a pic-

ture of sneakers in a collage can have various schemata underlying, from container to enable-

ment to merging to transformation. The number and dominance of schemata related to a pic-

ture depends on the context, and as such the examination of an element in its appearance and

context in order to identify the relevant image schemata is required. Sneakers have the form

of containers that people can step in; beyond that, wearing sneakers may enable people to

perform better by merging and being transformed. A detailed description of the application of

metaphor analysis on collages is provided in chapter 4.

3.2.3

Visual metaphors as sources of brand knowledge

There are two types of metaphors: verbal and nonverbal. However, visual (nonverbal)

metaphors have been neglected by researchers in the last two decades, although their use is

significant in expressing feelings as well as experiences and new aspects of brand knowledge

may be deduced (Barner, 2008). Methods that emphasize visual metaphors, such as the col-

lage technique, may be an appropriate instrument.

Richards (1936) was one of the pioneers in providing a definition of visual metaphors.

Richards (1936) described them as thinking processes about one thing in terms of another. A

building with a facial expression was one such example (Seitz, 1998). El Refaie (2003) ex-

plored the ways in which metaphors were expressed in the visual mode and found three major

arguments. The first was that visual metaphors are based on metaphorical concepts (in line

with cognitive metaphor theory discussed earlier in this book). Although the number of works

on visual metaphors has increased in recent history (Morris, 1993; Forceville, 1994; Carroll,

1996) there is still no consistent definition of visual metaphors (el Refaie, 2003). El Refaie

(2003) suggested defining visual metaphors rather as visual expressions of metaphorical con-

cepts, which was consistent with the current dominant paradigm in metaphor analysis, as op-

posed to a focus on formal qualities. The second of el Refaie's (2003) arguments was that

visual metaphors were less straightforward and much more susceptible to the socio-political

context than their verbal counterparts. The boundaries between the literal and metaphorical

are blurred and visual metaphors are more ambiguous than verbal ones. However, rather than

investigating whether a metaphor is literal or metaphorical, it makes more sense to determine

whether a metaphorical concept has become the natural way of expressing experiences or not

(el Refaie, 2003). Moreover, often the concepts of visual metaphors are not present visually

and can only be implied by the context, which requires an understanding of the socio-political

context in order to determine meaning (el Refaie, 2003). Thirdly, the specific forms of visual

metaphors have a great influence on their meaning and impact. One of the major differences

between verbal and visual metaphors is that the latter often refer to situations that have no

verbal translation, implying that on occasion images are more effective in expressing meaning

than words. This also means that visual metaphors are more implicit concepts and therefore

more susceptible to different interpretations (el Refaie, 2003). The next section deals with

color theory, the second approach of the interpretation procedure.

3.3

Color theory in interpreting collages

Consumer's personality, mind and behavior are determined by basic influences, of

which colors are part (Braem, 1998). As a consequence, colors have an impact on humans,

whether this impact is conscious or not. As an example, by wearing colorful clothes and pre-

ferring or rejecting certain colors customers are sending permanent signals (Riedel, 1986).

Colors trigger automatic-unconscious reactions and associations based on past personal expe-

riences (Heller, 1998) such as blue skies, green meadows, or a red fire (Riedel, 1986). Reac-

tions may include feelings and a direct impact on bodily processes, such as: heart beat, breath-

ing frequency or blood pressure (Braem, 1998). Associations may include preferences, imag-

es, and words.

3.3.1

What colors reveal about customers

Before explaining the importance of colors in marketing and why color theory is help-

ful for interpreting collages, the phenomenon of synesthesia is introduced. Synesthesia de-

scribes a process of perceiving a sensation by two different senses simultaneously (Cytowic,

2003). The experience of a sensation with one sense leads to an automatic experience of the

same sensation with another sense (Cytowic, 2003). There are several relations between dif-

ferent senses in the field of synesthesia, including those between colors and emotions, colors

and music, or line drawings and emotions (D'Andrade & Egan, 1974). The relation between

colors and emotions suggests that colors have emotional value and that there are happy colors,

sad colors, exciting colors and many more (D'Andrade & Egan, 1974; Singh, 2006). There

are two major schools of thought explaining this phenomenon. The first takes culture as the

basis of synesthesia, stating that culture contains metaphors, rituals and symbols that link col-

ors to different emotions. According to this perspective, emotions of colors are learned from

experiences (D'Andrade & Egan, 1974; Aslam, 2006). The second explanation uses stimuli as

the basis for synesthesia and suggests that stimuli trigger distinct, innate and unconditioned

responses which serve as connective links combining and eliciting different sensory experi-

ences (D'Andrade & Egan, 1974; Aslam, 2006). Though this is the case, this book is particu-

larly interested in meanings and brand knowledge deduced by colors rather than emotions. It

is important to note that the emotional responses triggered by colors influence consumer per-

ceptions and behaviors regarding products and brands (Aslam, 2006; Heath, 1997). Without

words, colors are able to communicate emotions whilst also conveying characteristics of

products and brands. Such characteristics can be as wide-ranging as: sexiness, fragility, dura-

bility, youth, and freshness (Heath, 1997). Colors create attention, convey messages, and gen-

erate feelings that influence emotional responses and behavioral intentions (Kotler, 1973).

Firms and managers have become more keenly aware of the effects of colors and consequent-

ly use them knowingly in marketing related to product design, packaging, advertising, brand-

ing, corporate identity and consumer perceptions (Aslam, 2006). Colors have the power to

reveal product attributes such as price, quality, or flavor. Colors also have the ability to evoke

product associations. For example, in the United Kingdom white is associated with cheap and

low-quality products, red is perceived as conceited and average priced and beige is seen as

boring and expensive (Aslam, 2006). Furthermore, colors can be used to communicate corpo-

rate positions and are an effective method to differentiate from competition by launching a

product with an atypical color in its category. In the United States for example, blue is associ-

ated with responsible financial services, whereas yellow stands for bright and exciting com-

panies (Aslam, 2006). Finally, but importantly, colors reveal one's own individual personality

and self-image, as people buy colors that reflect themselves (Aslam, 2006). This means that

color theory helps to reveal experiences, perceptions and meanings of consumers in relation to

brands, products and companies. Since this information is very useful in marketing, color the-

ory is a part of the interpretation procedure in this book.

3.3.2

Same color, different meaning

While some colors have universal meanings across countries, others represent and of-

fer different meanings and preferences based on culture, ethnicity, region and income (Aslam,

2006; Heath, 1997). White for example symbolizes mourning and death in East Asia, but

happiness and purity in North America. Blue represents death in Iran and purity in India, but

coldness and masculinity in Western Europe (Aslam, 2006). There are numerous examples

showing cultural differences of colors and consequently it is crucial that managers are aware

of the different perceptions and interpretations of colors in various geographic areas (Aslam,

2006). This book focuses on color theories in Western Europe only. Interestingly however,

there are not only differences based on culture, even people from the same culture associate

different meanings with the same color and different colors with the same meaning (Heller,

1998). This is possible because the perception of colors is context-dependent, and same colors

are associated with different experiences, personal or cultural. Beyond that, even small differ-

ences in the hue of a color can impart very different meanings (Heller, 1998). For example,

whilst green is the color of youth and represents immaturity (as green tomatoes are unripe),

green is also the color of nature representing health and freshness, as green leafs belong to

healthy plants (Riedel, 1986). As a consequence, in terms of brands and products green is

associated with healthy foods, but it can also represent young and thriving organizations

(Aslam, 2006). This shows that colors have an impact on consumer behavior and their percep-

tions, influence purchase decisions and define brand identity (Heath, 1997). Color theory can

reveal valuable information about brands, products and companies.

The remainder of this section illustrates the major meanings of the seven most com-

mon colors based on Riedel (1986) and Heller (1998). Riedel (1986) developed a thorough

psychological color theory based on findings and results by several researchers and 20

cen-

tury studies (Stefanescu-Goanga, 1912; Frieling & Auer, 1961; Itten, 1962; Heiss, Halder, &

Höger, 1975). Riedel (1986) utilized and illustrated those theories systematically and mean-

ingfully. Nine different colors (red, blue, yellow, green, orange, purple, brown, black, and

white) are discussed in terms of associations, psychological impact, symbolism and arche-

types (Riedel, 1986). Heller (1998) complemented Riedel (1986) very well and conducted her

own study of color theory. 1888 persons were asked to assign colors to forty different terms.

Heller (1998) used the findings and results to illustrate the meanings of thirteen colors (blue,

red, green, black, pink, yellow, white, purple, gold, brown, gray, silver, and orange) in terms

of psychological, symbolic, cultural, political, traditional and creative effects. Color theory of

collages in this book is based upon the meanings outlined below.

3.3.2.1

White the "godlike" color

The most common associations with the color white are: light, brightness, and snow.

White also has an important status as a godlike color, as it stands for faith, belief, piety, sacri-

fice and innocence. It is the color of the beginning and resurrection as well as eternity (Heller,

1998). White clothes play a major role at rites of initiation and passage and are associated

with bright days, cheerfulness and vitality (Riedel, 1986). White represents openness, inno-

cence, purity, universality, perfection, ideal and the good (Riedel, 1986; Heller, 1998). White

can be the color of cleanliness and quietness. It can also represent tenderness and relate to

hygiene and hospitals or epitomize good virtues, such as honesty, intelligence, and precision.

Moreover it is the color of science referring to dispassion, objectivity, functionality, moderni-

ty; and the color of the north referring to winter, cold, and snow (Heller, 1998). White also

has a negative connotation as color of emptiness, loneliness, the unknown and a lacking in

color (Riedel, 1986; Heller, 1998).

3.3.2.2

Black the "negative" color

Black has a strong impact on people, as it is based on the experiences of nightfall and

the extinguishment of color. Black is associated mainly with death, night, darkness, deepness

and also coal or lava (Riedel, 1986). It is the color of negative feelings: looking at the dark

side, having a black heart, giving a black look and black humor are only a few examples.

Black is the color of dirt and disgrace (blackening, blackmail, blackball or black guard) and

the color of bad luck and misfortune (black day, black cat, and black ice). Black reverses

meanings into the opposite, such as: red from love into hate, yellow from sociability to self-

ishness, and blue from harmony into harshness (Heller, 1998). Black is a melancholy color

and is often connected to repression, blockage and dissociation. It is the absolute color and

represents nothingness, lack of life and evil (Riedel, 1986). Black is the color of mourning, as

it is a sign of mourning to ignore one's personal appearance (Heller, 1998). Clerics also often

wear black as it is an ascetic, conservative and plain color (Riedel, 1986). Also importantly,

black can be the color of individuality and differentiation (Heller, 1998).

3.3.2.3

Red the color of fire

The most common associations with red are fire (inflammatory speech and enlighten-

ment), heat and blood. Other nuances are associated with sexual desire, danger, closeness, or

strength, power and love (Riedel, 1986). The emotional impacts of red are excitement,

warmth, stimulation, and activity; red raises blood pressure, pulse and breathing frequency. It

is the urge to do something, to be active and to make an impact (Riedel, 1986). From love to

sexuality, to hate, all feelings that make our blood boil are related to red, as blood is a vivid

part of our body (Riedel, 1986). The more positive a passion, the lighter the red; the more

negative a passion, the darker the red (Heller, 1998). Red is conspicuous in many flags and a

political color, as it is related to Communism (Riedel, 1986). Red is also the color of the le-

gally and morally forbidden (red-light district) or the color of warning and help (road traffic

and the Red Cross) (Heller, 1998; Riedel, 1986). Red is the color of war as well as justice and

red gives power, thus warriors and judges wore red (Heller, 1998). Red is the color of correc-

tion, as the red pencil is used for corrections in school, and the color of advertising, as red is

active, dynamic and eye-catching (Heller, 1998).

3.3.2.4

Blue the color of infinite dimensions

The most common associations are sky/heaven, sea/ocean, cold/coolness, and ice

(Riedel, 1986). Blue is a cold color and inappropriate for the interior (Heller, 1998). Blue

evokes skies in different moods, the atmosphere of the earth and seas, ranging from light tur-

quoise to dark blue ultramarine (Riedel, 1986). Colors have an impact on our perspective and

blue is the color of infinite dimensions, as cold colors seem farther away than warm colors

(Heller, 1998). Sky and sea refer to unlimited distance and depth, as well as infinity (Riedel,

1986). Blue is the color of faithfulness and desire, as both are connected to distance. Faithful-

ness can only be proved and desire can only occur, if somebody or something is far away

(Heller, 1998). In general, the color blue triggers wishful, melancholic, calm, and dreamlike

emotions. It is the color of introversion, sensibility, secureness and connectedness, in spite of

the fact that dark blue often elicits depressing, serious and sad feelings (Riedel, 1986). Blue

can also be the color of imagination, representing a utopian idea whose realization is far away.

Finally, blue represents masculinity, as it stands for courage, performance, wisdom, intelli-

gence and accuracy (Heller, 1998).

3.3.2.5

Gray the "boring" color

Gray is the color of dull feelings such as loneliness, mourning, affliction and empti-

ness. It is the color of unfriendliness and rejection, and often associated with rain, fog, cold-

ness, and daily routine (Riedel, 1986). It is the color of theory, and unloved virtues such as

punctuality, thoughtfulness, objectivity, and functionality. It destroys vitality and is the color

of deadness. Gray stands for indifference, insecurity and introversion and represents old age,

as hair turns gray. Moreover gray is the color of poverty, modesty and simplicity (gray areas).

Finally, it is the color of inferiority, cheapness and inedibility (Heller, 1998).

3.3.2.6

Green the color of life

The main associations with this color are meadows/grassland, forests, blooming nature

and green landscapes. Light green is associated with pullulation, humidity and recovery,

whereas blue-green is associated with water, cold and ice (Riedel, 1986). Green symbolizes

hope, as it is connected to desire and hope for the upcoming spring during winter (Riedel,

1986; Heller, 1998). It is the color of nature, culture and civilization (Heller, 1998) and the

color of life, as it stands for herbal growth, spring, and thriving businesses (Riedel, 1986; Hel-

ler, 1998). Forests are related to growth, development, protection and closeness (Riedel,

1986). Green is a relaxing, gentle, pleasant, balancing, refreshing and peaceful color (Riedel,

1986). It is a fresh color and perfumes and beverages in green packaging represent that. Green

is associated with health, immaturity and youth, since vegetables and fruits are healthy, but

green when they are unripe. In negative terms it is the color of poison (bilious green) (Heller,

1998). While red is close, hot, dry, and active, and blue is far, cold, wet, and passive, green is

in the middle of these two colors and as such is perceived as relaxing, calming, healing,

pleasant and safe (Heller, 1998).

3.3.2.7

Yellow the "sunny" color

The most common associations with this color are sun, light, flowers and gold. Yellow

stands for ripe fruits and vegetables, blooming flowers, and honey. Yellow is a bright, color-

ful and positive color. It is active, vivid, extroverted, cheerful and inspiring (Riedel, 1986).

Yellow does however have two faces positive and negative. Sunlight (associated with

warming and illumination), stands for optimism, summer and fun (Riedel, 1986; Heller,

1998), whereas negative experiences of yellow refer to bitter taste and diseases, such as jaun-

dice, kidney disease or poisoning. Moreover it is perceived negatively as a loud, intrusive and

gaudy color and often used in road traffic and as a warning for poison (Riedel, 1986; Heller,

1998). Lastly, it is the color of gold in reference to luxury and prosperity or can symbolize

envy, greed, selfishness, mendacity or unfaithfulness (Heller, 1998).

3.4

A communication psychological view on collages

Communication is much more than just talking to one another. There are numerous

ways to communicate, from words, to gestures, to texts, to pictures. This book takes a closer

look at communication via collages and the meaning that can be deduced from it. Communi-

cation is any form of transmission of encoded information between (at least) a sender and a

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Title

How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds

Author

Philipp Pachler (Author)

Year

2013

Pages

202

Catalog Number

V287414

File size

4754 KB

Language

English

Tags

Collage technique Brand knowledge Projective technique Consumer memory Metaphor analysis

Quote paper

Philipp Pachler (Author)

, 2013, How collages reveal your deepest thoughts: A guide to consumers' minds, Hamburg, Diplomica Publishing GmbH, https://www.anchor-publishing.com/document/287414

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