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(2) an utterance which makes just as long a communication as the speaker has
intended to make before giving himself.
(3) a grammatically constructed smallest unit of speech which express its content
with respect to this content's relation to reality.
(4) a portion of speech that is putting forward to the listener a state of things ( a
thing meant) as having validity ,i.e., as being true.
(5) a ( relatively)complete and independent human utterance the completeness
and independence being shown by its standing alone or its capability of
standing alone, i.e., of being uttered by itself.
(6) a group of words joined together by grammatical agreements { relating
devices} and which, not grammatically dependent upon any other group, are
complete in themselves .
(7) a construction ( or from0 which in the given utterance , is not part of any
larger construction.
(8) a group of words, phrases or clauses that can occur in isolation. (as quoted in
Fries 1980:20).
(9) A group of words with two main parts: a complete subject and a complete
predicate. Together these parts express a complete thought.
1.6 The Four Structures of Sentence.
The four basic sentence structures are:
(i) Simple Sentence :-
A sentence which contains only one predicate or a single independent clause
E.g., a. I like milk.
B. The Winter arrived early.
C. Struck by novelty of the idea, Dr.Ali grinned with pleasure.
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(ii) Compound Sentence :-
A sentence which contains two or more independent clauses which are joined
by co-ordination.
E.g., a. Dr. Ali went to a moll this morning, but he did not buy anything.
b. Ahmed is a young boy, but he is very clever.
(ind. Clause) (ind. Clause)
A. Khalid is a night owl; therefore. He sleeps late in the morning.
(iii) Complex Sentence :-
A sentence which contains one or more dependent or subordinate clauses, in
addition to its independent , or main,
E.g., a. Whoever wants this job can have.
( Main Clause Subordinate Clause)
b. When it rained, we went inside .
(Dep. Clause) ( ind. Clause)
c. Ali said, the car broke.
(iv) Compound Complex Sentence:-
A sentence which consists of two or more independent clauses and one or
more subordinate clauses.
E.g., a. The truck dropped its load of gravel onto the
Driveway ( ind. Clause )
Where the car was parked, and then the truck drove off.
(subordinate clause) (independent clause)
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b. When the lights went out, we felt extremely uneasy,
(subordinate clause) (independent clause)
But we always knew that morning would eventually come.
( independent clause) (subordinate clause)
1.7 The Four Functions of Sentences
Sentences may also be classified by function. According to Aiken(19981:15)''
according to their idea or content English sentences are classified as declarative,
interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory. The first makes a statement, the second
asks a question, the third makes a request , and the fourth expresses strong
emotion.''
(i) Declarative Sentence :
A declarative sentence states an idea and ends with a period or full stop.
E.g.,
a. All of tries are new.
b. Dr. Ali is an expert in translation.
C. Ahmed doesn't like sweet things.
(ii) Interrogative Sentence:
An interrogative sentence asks a question and ends with a question
mark.
E.g.,
a. Did you renew your newspaper subscription?( Yes/no questions)
b. You renew your newspaper subscription?( Intonation).
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c. When did you renew your newspaper subscription
(iii) Imperative Sentence:
An imperative sentence gives an order or a direction and ends with a
period or an exclamation mark.
E.g.,
a. Come here.
b. Run!
c. will someone please take these packages into the
house before drop them!
(iv) Exclamatory Sentence:
An exclamatory sentence conveys emotion and ends with an
exclamation mark.
E.g.,
a. Would you look at that!
b. What a terrible noise!
c. How wonderful!
1.8 The Three Basic Properties of Sentence Structures.
Jacobs (2001:35) listed the following three majors properties of sentence
structure
1. Linearity: Sentences are produced and received in a linear sequence.
2. Hierarchy: Sentences are hierarchically structured, that is, they are not simply
sequences of individual words but are made up of word groupings, which
themselves may consist of lesser groups.
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3. Categorically: Sentences are made up of parts which belong to a set of
distinct categories, each with its special characteristics. (Jacobs.pp.35-40 for
further reading and more details) .
1.9 Basic Sentence Patterns
There are five basic pattern for sentence with complement
1.10 Negative Sentences Correctly
Negative sentences are formed correctly in one f the three ways:-
(1)Using One Negative Word :-
The most common way to take a statement negative is with a single negative
word, such is( no, not, none, nothing, never, nobody, or nowhere, or with the
contraction- n't )added to a helping verb.
Note: DO NOT USE TWO NEHATIVE WORDS IN THE SAME CLAUSE.
Using two of these negative words in the same clause will create a double
negative. Jacobs (ibid.272).
E.g.,
· Double Negative:- He hasn't never told us the truth.
· Correct:- He has never told us the truth.
(2)Using (But) in a Negative Sense:-
No
Patterns
Examples
1
S-AV-DO
Dr. Ali delivered a fascinating Lecture.
2 S-AV-IO-DO
Her
father wrote her a letter.
3
S-AV-DO- OC My daughter success made me happy.
4
S-LV-PN
Cobra is a poisonous snake.
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S-LV-PA
Ahmed is ill today.
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When (but) means ''only'', it usually acts as a negative.
Note: DO NOT USE BUT IN ITS NEGATIVE SENSE WITH AN OTHER
NEGATIVE.
E.g.,
· Double Negative:- She didn't offer but one reasonable excuse.
· Correct:- She offered but one reasonable excuse.
· Correct: She offered only one reasonable excuse. Jacobs (ibid.p,272) .
(3) Using (Barley, Hardly, and Scarcely):-
These words have a negative sense and should not be used with other negative
words.
Note: DO NOT USE BARLEY, SCARCELY HARDLY, WITH AN OTHER
NEGATIVE.
· Double Negative:- He wasn't barley able to recognize her.
· Correct:- He was barely able to recognize her.
· Double Negative:- The motorist couldn't hardly see the traffic light.
· Correct:- The motorist could hardly see the traffic light.
· Double Negative:-The lecture hadn't scarcely begun.
· Correct The lecture had scarcely begun.
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Practice Exercise (1)
PART ONE
i. Define the following terms?
a. Syntax...
...
b. Surfacestructure...
...
c. InterrogativeSentence...
...
d. Exclamatory Sentence...
e. Imperative Sentence...
f. Declarative Sentence...
g. Linearity:...
h. Categorically...
ii. Use the following instructions to write ten sentences of your own.
a. Write a simple declarative sentence.
...
b. Write a compound declarative sentence.
...
...
c. Write a simple interrogative sentence.
...
...
d. Write a compound interrogative sentence.
...
...
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e. Write a simple exclamatory sentence.
...
...
f. Write a complex declarative sentence.
...
...
g. Write a complex interrogative sentence.
...
...
h. Write a compound- complex declarative sentence.
...
...
i. Write a compound- complex interrogative sentence.
...
...
PART TWO
i. What are the two kinds of rules in modern Syntax?
...
...
ii. What are the three basic properties of sentence structures?
...
...
iii. What are the four functions of sentence?
...
...
iv. What are the four structures of sentence?
...
...
v.
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vi. What is the difference between surface structure and deep structure?
...
...
PART THREE
Find the subordinate clauses in these sentences:
i. A bee performs a special dance, when it has found, to inform the others.
...
...
ii. Most employees will be happy if the regulation to reduce work hours is passed
...
...
iii. The book fair which was opened yesterday visited by many students.
...
...
iv. Many people came to California in the 1860s believing that they would find
gold
...
...
v. Although we call them shooting stars, meteorites are bit of matter from other
planets entering the earth's atmosphere
...
...
PART FOUR
State whether each of the following sentences is declarative, imperative,
interrogative or exclamatory.
i. What a fool
...
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ii. What is he doing?
...
iii. Aren't you coming with us?
...
iv. Water boils at 100 degree centigrade
...
v. Who on earth painted that
vi. E. Hemingway, a novelist and short- story writer, developed a prose
style...
vii. I don't know why he said that...
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CHAPTER TWO
NOUNS PRONOUNS IN ENGLISH
The investigation of words is the beginning of Education
A.S. Conran.
2.1 Defining
Nouns
Nouns can be defined as :-
i. the name of a person, animal, place, concept or thing.
ii. naming things that can be seen and touched as well as those that cannot be
seen and touched.
According to Jarvie(1990:9) traditionally, nouns are defined as '' naming words',
or the names of persons, animals, places or things/. This is still a useful
definition, as far as it goes. But modern grammarians are interested in describing
the function of a word, as well as defining its meaning. They like to clarify what
a word does in a sentence before assigning a part of speech to it. For example,
look at the nouns in these
a. Stop the watch!
b. They threw out the rubbish.
c. Watch the stop!
d. They rubbished his throw.
2.2 Defining Pronouns
Pronoun can be defined as:-
i. set of items which can be used to substitute for a single noun or noun
phrase.
ii. a word that stands for a nouns ,or a noun phrase ,or something relating to it.
iii. Words that stand for nouns or for words those take the place of nouns.
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2.3 Differences between Nouns and Pronouns.
Thakur( ibid.p.,3) listed the following differences between nouns and pronouns:-
i.
Nouns do not have contrasting case forms as some pronouns have. The
noun student, for example, can be used as a subject, as an object or as a
completive to a preposition without any morphological change. This is not
true about the central members of the pronominal class. Nominative forms
like he, she, and we, for example, cannot occur in the position of an object
or in the position of a completive to a preposition without any
morphological change. Similarly, the accusative forms like him, her, me
and us cannot occur in the position of the subject of a sentence.
ii.
The majority of nouns can be changed into their plural forms by the addition
of the inflectional suffix {-s} or {-es}.Pronouns are not amendable to such
morphological changes indicating plurality. It is true that many pronouns
have their singular as well as plural forms but in most cases ( as in I/ we, he/
they, she/they, it/they, me/us and my/our) their plural forms cannot be
predicted in terms of a morphological rule.
iii.
Pronouns cannot take all the premodifiers that nouns can. They cannot, for
example, co-occur with the indefinite articles a or an. The indefinite
pronouns one can be preceded by the, but the central members of this class
cannot be preceded by the definite article. Except in phrases like '' poor old
you'' pronouns cannot be preceded by adjectives either.
2.4 Count nouns and Non-count nNouns
a. Count nouns refer to entities viewed in English as individual units. They are
sometimes described as having the feature (+count). The entities they refer to
can be abstract (an idea, suggestions, belief, prejudice) as well as concrete (a
house, child, potatoes, finger).Jacobs, ibid.106).
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b. Noncount nouns typically refer to entities that are viewed not as individual units
but as something having no specific shape or boundary . They are described as
having the negative value for count feature {- count.} Jacobs, ibid.106).
c. Quirk( ibid,p.,60) listed the following some examples which are non-count in
English but count nouns in some other languages:
Anger, applause, behavior, chaos, homework, poetry, parking, safety, moonlight,
research, chess, leisure, smoking, progress, harm, education, photography,
weather, sunshine, conduct, etc...
d. Nouns are countable if:
o
they can be preceded by a: a bus.
o
They can be both singular and plural: a cat, cats.
o
They can be counted: one taxi, two taxis, twenty taxis.
e. Nouns are uncountable if:
o
They are preceded by some rather than a: some salt, some marmalade.
o
They are not normally counted or pluralized: two butters, eleven flours.
o
Most uncountable nouns denote commodities or notions that tend not to be
counted out as individual objects. We say two organs or six apples(
countable), but we don't normally say two butters or six breads (
uncountable.) For uncountable commodities we have to bring in other forms of
measurements, such as:
- A bag/spoonful/ton of flour.
- One/two /three grains of sand.
- A piece of information/music.
- A slice of bread/cake/cake/beef.
- A ton of rice/cement/rubbish.
- An ounce of curry power.
f. Occasionally, nouns may be either countable or uncountable, depending on the
context, such as:
- I need a pound of sugar.( uncountable ).
- One sager or two.( countable).
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- , 2015, Syntax: An Introduction. A Textbook for University students of Linguistics & Translation, Hamburg, Bedey Media GmbH, https://www.anchor-publishing.com/document/293301
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