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Chapter 3: Introduction to Lahore City ... 37
3.1
Introduction ... 37
3.2
Climate ... 39
3.2.1 Temperature ... 40
3.2.2 Humidity ... 40
3.2.3 Wind Direction ... 40
3.3
Population Growth of Lahore ... 40
3.4
Existing Land Use ... 42
Chapter 4: Patterns of Air Pollution in Lahore City ... 45
4.1
Introduction ... 45
4.1.1 Wind speed ... 46
4.1.2 Wind direction ... 46
4.1.3 Temperature ... 46
4.1.4 Humidity ... 46
4.1.5 Barometric pressure ... 46
4.1.6 Sunshine ... 46
4.2
Patterns of Ozone Concentration in 2000 ... 48
4.3
Patterns of Sulphur Dioxide in the city in 2000 ... 53
4.4
Patterns of NO
x
in the city in 2000 ... 58
4.5
Patterns of Carbon Monoxide in the City in 2000 ... 63
4.6.
Patterns of Particulate Matter in the city in 2000 ... 68
Chapter 5: People's Behaviour towards Air Pollution ... 73
5.1
Public survey ... 73
Chapter 6: Summary and Conclusion ... 95
6.1
Summary ... 95
6.2
Conclusion ... 96
6.3
Recommendations: ... 97
Annex-1: Bibliography ... 99
Annex-2: Bio of Authors ... 103
Annex-3: Questionnaire ... 105
7
Chapter 1:
Introduction
The atmosphere, which is surrounding the earth and providing us oxygen to
breath, consists of nitrogen, oxygen, water vapour and inert gases. One of the major
problems, that is arising concern among all quarters of the world, is the rapidly
deteriorating atmosphere occurring due to the air pollution. Until recently,
environmental pollution problems have been minor because of earth's own ability to
absorb and purify minor quantities of pollution. However, due to the industrialization,
the introduction of motorized vehicles, explosion of human population and the
indiscriminate discharge of gases into the atmosphere by industries without
considering the consequences have increased the magnitude and gravity of this
problem.
Air pollutants are the substances in the atmosphere, which have harmful effects
on human and biotic life. Organisms are able to deal with certain levels of pollutants
without suffering ill effects. However, the pollutant level below which no ill effects
are observed is called the "threshold level" (Nebel et. al., 1993).
The major sources of air pollution are power and heat generation, burning of
solid wastes, industrial processes, and transportation. Bruce et al (2000) have pointed
out three factors which determine the level of air pollution:-
1.
Amount of the pollutant put into the air.
2.
Amount of the space into which the pollutants are dispersed.
3.
Mechanism that removes pollutants from the air.
8
1.1 Global
Effects:
There are several major environmental problems such as smog, acid rain, the
greenhouse effect and "holes" in the ozone layer which are the focus of the
environment due to their harmful effects on the man and its environment.
Acid rain is one of the major environmental problems, which has always being
the focus of the scientists. Chemical analysis of acid precipitation reveals the
presence of sulphuric acid and nitric acid. In general about two-third of the acidity is
due to sulphuric acid and onethird to nitric acid. Both sulphuric dioxide and nitrogen
dioxide gradually react with water vapour and, through a number of steps, become
acids. Precipitation becomes acidic, as it flushes these acids from the atmosphere.
The pH of the precipitation depends on both the amount of acid and the amount of
water. Fog and mist may be mostly acidic because the acid is disclosed in relatively
little water.
Some scientists believe that inhalation of highly acidic fog particles and dry
acid particles is a major source of breathing and respiratory problems (Dockery et.
al., 1994; Thurston, 1991). In addition there is evidence that inhalation of such
particles renders lung tissues more susceptible to the carcinogenic effects of to the
pollutants.
Climate has always been affected by the human activities (Shafiq, Santos et.
al., 2011). However with growth of population and their needs, such as land use and
transportation the climatic conditions are being altered very rapidly in the present
time. This alteration is being caused by the addition of carbon dioxide and certain
other gases to the atmosphere, which causing the earth's climate to warm resulting in
rising sea levels and insecure weather changes throughout the world.
This carbon dioxide effect is also known as `the greenhouse effect', because it
is analogues to solar heating, which occurs in the green house or in the car when it
left parked in the sea.
Sunlight enters the glasses and absorbed. As the surface became warm, they
radiate energy as infrared or heat radiation. The nature of the glass is that, it is highly
transparent; it tends to block the infrared radiation. Therefore the energy that enters
9
as light is trapped and causes the temperature to rise. The carbon dioxide acts as a
heat trapper and initiates to increase the temperature level in the lower atmosphere.
On the global level, carbon dioxide in the atmosphere plays a role analogue to
the glass. Light energy comes through the atmosphere. It is absorbed and converted
into heat energy at the surface and exists as infrared radiation; the natural gases in the
atmosphere do not. As carbon dioxide absorbs the infrared radiation, it becomes
warms and thus in turn warms the rest of the atmosphere. Consequently, it follows
that greater the amount of infrared that will be absorbed and the warmer will be the
atmosphere. Climatologists are now in general agreement that if a doubling of carbon
dioxide level to 600ppm is used as a reference point, the overall warming will be
between 1.5
o
C and 4.5
o
C, warming in likely to be more pronounced in polar region
as much as 10
o
C , and less pronounced in equatorial region 1
o
C 2
o
C.
Depletion of ozone shield is a serious problem in the atmosphere. Radiation
from the sun includes the ultraviolet light along with visible light. Ultraviolet is like
light radiation but the wavelengths are slightly shorter than violet light, which are the
shortest wavelengths seen by the human eye; while ultraviolet light is not visible, the
rays are more energetic than those of visible light. On penetrating the atmosphere and
being absorbed by biological tissues, they actually destroy protein and DNA
molecule. If the full amount of ultraviolet radiation falling on the upper atmosphere
came through the earth's surface, it is doubtful if any life could survive, plants and
animals alike would simply be "cooked"; even the small amount that does come
through is responsible for all the sunburns and some 200,000 cases of skin cancer per
year in the USA (Miller, 2000)
We are spared more damaging effects from ultraviolet rays because most of it
is absorbed and thus creamed out by a layer of ozone in the stratosphere. It is
commonly referred to as ozone shield. There are various man-made pollutants that
are causing it to breakdown. The most significant ones are free chlorine atoms, which
are highly poisonous to plants and animals (Thomas, 1984).
10
1.2 Air Pollution in Pakistan
Air pollution is woven throughout the fabric of our life. A by-product of the
manner in which we levied our cities, air pollution is the waste remaining from the
ways we produced our goods, transport our goods and ourselves and generate energy
to heat and light the places where we live. In terms of Pakistan `Environmental act
1997', the air pollution is the release of any substance like soot, smoke, dust particles,
odour, light, electromagnetic radiation, heat, fumes, communication exhaust, gases,
noxious gases, noxious gases, hazardous substances and radioactive substances into
the atmosphere to the extent, which have adverse environmental effects or on human
health and safety and property, or on biodiversity
(
Barker & Tingey, 1992).
Impurities in fuel, poor fuel air ratio, too high or too low combustion temperature
cause the main pollution in the air. Industrial resources emit air pollutants through
combustion of fuel, chemical processes, manufacturing, grinding, mixing,
evaporation, and drying processes (Smith, 1993). The industrial units emit following
air pollutants: carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and sulphur
dioxide, organic vapour, and organic compounds etc. The mobile sources (Zhou &
Levy, 2007) like automobiles, diesel-powered trains, trucks, and airplanes constitute
more than 40% of the five major air pollutants.
Sector
1987/88 1997/98
CO
2
SO
2
CO
2
SO
2
Industry 26680
423
53429
982
Transport 10250
57
18987
105
Power 11216
95
53062
996
Domestic 24050
16
3998
40
Agriculture 4490
28
6368
40
Commercial 2587
13
4261
25
Table 1.1: Patterns of major pollutants in Pakistan Source: The Pakistan
National Conservation Strategy (1999), Government of Pakistan
11
Table 1.1 shows that carbon dioxide generation from industry is very high and
has risen to about 100% in the last decade. While power generation and
transportation play the second and third roles respectively in producing high levels of
air pollution.
City PM
10
SO
2
CO NO
2
HC
Karachi 6175 4224
3777380
44675
90584
Lahore 3213
2218
198180
23460
47570
Islamabad
1572 1075 96090 11375 2365
Faisalabad 1344
920
82130 9722 19714
Hyderabad 1148
785
70160 8305 16841
Multan 1094 784 66880
7917
15077
Peshawar 1028 703 62815 7436 7257
Quetta 495 338
30235
3579 -
Table 1.2: Annual vehicular emission in different
cities [in tons] Source: EPA
A comparative study indicates that our vehicles emit 25 times more
hydrocarbons and 3.6 times more nitrous oxide than those in the US. Nitrogen
dioxide present in our environment is much more than UN WHO specified limit of
0.05 ppm.
1.3 Air Pollution in Lahore City
Lahore city is highly polluted city of Pakistan. The major causes of increase in
air pollution in Lahore city are industries, more traffic, and high density of
population. The major pollutants for this study are sulphur dioxide, oxides of
nitrogen, ozone, and particulate matter.
12
Location Ozone
SO
2
NO
x
CO Dust
Yateem
Khana
Chowk 8 18 175 3 1123
Lohari gate
10
20
68
2
1180
Azadi
chowk
12 25 125 1 850
Bank
square
4 38 208 19 1050
Qartaba
chowk
8 25 105 22 1030
Table 1.3: Air pollution in Lahore in 2000
Day time average Source: EPA
1.4 Aims and Objectives of the Study
The present research explores the extent of air pollutants in Lahore city. The
main objectives are:
1.
To observed the air pollution level in different parts of the city.
2.
To see the spatial pattern of air pollution in Lahore city.
3.
To see the differences in the air pollution among major parts of the city.
These objectives have been achieved through collecting primary and secondary
data of about six major pollutants.
In order to evaluate the patterns of air pollution, the pollutants such as
suspended particulate matter, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, ozone, and carbon
monoxide have been examined.
1.5 Data
Sources
The nature of study reflects that primary as well as secondary data have been
used in this study.
13
For primary data collection it is very important to select a sampling site. So ten
sampling sites have been chosen. A sampling point is selected if it meets the
following requirements;
1.
It is not directly exposed to varying amount of gas.
2.
It produces a homogenous level of pollutants
3.
Day conditions at the sampling point are consistent.
4.
The point is located where the maximum people are expected to be
affected by pollution
Some secondary data were also obtained.
The data for the carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide, and ozone
in 1993, 1996 were available from Environment Protection Agency. Data of
particulate matter in the above given years were available from University of the
Engineering and Technology Lahore, while some data was also available from Space
Science Department, University of the Punjab.
1.6 Methodology
As the aim of the research indicates that major emphases in the present study
has been placed on the present day problem of air pollution and the changing
patterns. The second chapter is the detailed description of the air pollutants, their
sources causes and their effects. The third chapter is presenting the general picture of
the physical geography of Lahore. To achieve the objectives of the research primary
data were collected at sampling site. These are:
1. Yateem
Khana
Chowk
2. Yadgar
Chowk
3. Charing
Cross
4.
Gulberg [Main Market]
5. Campus
Bridge
14
6.
Mall road [Regal Chowk]
7. Qartaba
Chowk
8. Kot
Lakhpat
9. Badami
Bagh
10. Shadman
chowk
Figure 1.1: Map of Lahore city showing the urban extend
[in dark shade] and sampling sites [in red balloons].
For this purpose, equipment known as the air pump was used with the help of
Department of Space Science of University of the Punjab (Shafiq, 2001). The
reagents for the detection of air pollutants were obtained and prepared from Institute
of Chemistry, University of the Punjab.
The secondary data of these stations were easily available from the above
given departments. Difficulties were faced in compiling the data because the data
were in raw form and it took a lot of time to bring it in the desired form. Map of
Lahore has been digitized to represent the primary and secondary data. Results have
15
been presented in the form of the tables, graphs and maps, showing patterns of air
pollution in Lahore city. The data have been shown in the form of temporal maps as
shown in figures 4.4, 4.7, 4.10, 4.13, 4.16, and choropleth maps are in Figure 4.3, 4.5,
4.8, 4.11, 4.14 and in the form of Tables and Graphs.
The last chapter summarizes the whole research and gives the conclusion.
16
Figure 1.2: Map of Lahore city showing sampling sites loaded into a GIS
17
Chapter 2:
Air Pollutants, Source and their Effects
2.1 Introduction
In simple words any addition to air, water, soil, and food that threatens the
health or other living organisms can be called pollution. Most pollutants are solid,
liquid or in gaseous form by products or wastes of industrial material which are
produced, when a resource is extracted, processed, made into products, or used
(Nebel et. al., 1993; Smith, 1993). Pollution can take the form of unwanted energy
emissions, such as successive heat, noise or radiation. Most pollution from human
activities occurs in or near urban and industrial areas, where pollutants are
concentrated.
Environmental pollution may also be defined as "the unfavourable alteration of
surroundings, wholly or largely as a by-product of man's actions, through directed or
indirect effects of changes in energy patterns, radiation levels, chemical and physical
constitutions and abundance of organisms" (Nebel et. al., 1993). Such changes may
affect man directly or through his supplies of water and of agricultural and other
biological products, his physical objects or possessions, or his opportunities for
recreation and appreciation of nature.
Whenever society uses energy and material there are both desirable and
undesirable products. The desirable products are the discarded materials and energy
given up in the course of performing work. Most environmental pollution comes
from these by-products. In older times it was heat, smoke, and related wastes from
one's home, which have been contributed to air pollution. But with the development
18
of technology, the contribution to air pollution has changed dramatically and the
nature of the pollution has changed accordingly.
2.2 Types of Pollution
Usually pollution is classified according to the environment in which it occurs
or according to the types of pollutants [lead, mercury, carbon dioxide, solid wastes,
noise, biocide, heat, etc.] by which pollution has been caused. Sometimes, pollution
is made to classify into two broad categories
»
Artificial pollution, which originates due to the activities of man.
»
Natural pollution, which originates from natural processes.
However, keeping in mind the major types of pollution can be categorized as:
1) Air pollution
2) Water pollution
3) Solid waste pollution
4) Land pollution
5) Marine pollution
6) Noise pollution
7) Radiation pollution
8) Thermal pollution
The focus of this research is on air pollution.
2.3 Air
Pollution
Air pollution is defined as "an atmospheric condition in which certain
substances are present in such concentrations that they can produce undesirable
effects on man and his environment" (Kupchella, 1993).
These substances are gases, particulate, radioactive materials, etc. This means
gases or aerosol material in the air, which are not considered to be a normal
19
constituent or excess of normal constituent. In simple words "Air pollution is
basically the presence of foreign substances in air" (Kupchella, 1993). Critics have
pointed this out that the rapid industrialization is the major cause of air pollution. The
air pollution can be understood as the "price of industrialization" and air pollution
caused by automobiles as the "disease of wealth".
Air pollution means the presence on the outdoor atmosphere of one or more
contaminants such as dust, fumes of gases, mist, odour, smoke, or vapour in
quantities, which are injurious to human, plants, animal life, property or which
quantities, which unreasonably interfere with the comfortable enjoyment of life and
property. There is no doubt that air pollution existed in ancient times, but it was much
less widespread than today. Today air pollution level has increased enormously at
regional and global level.
20
Pollutants Composition
Characteristics
Sulphur dioxide
SO
2
Colourless, heavy, water soluble, gas
with a pungent smell, irritating odour
Particulate
matter
Variable
Solid particles or liquid droplets
including fumes, smoke, dust, and
aerosols
Nitrogen
dioxide
NO
2
Reddish brown gas, somewhat water
soluble
Hydrocarbons Variable
Many and varied compounds of
hydrogen and carbon
Carbon
monoxide
CO
Colourless, odourless, slightly water
soluble
Ozone O3
Pale blue gas, fairly water soluble,
unstable, sweetish odour
Hydrogen
sulphide
H
2
S
Colourless gas with smell of rotten
eggs
Fluoride Variable
Pungent, colourless, water soluble
gas
Nitric oxide
NO
Colourless gas, slightly water soluble
Lead
Pb
Metallic, can exist in variety of ways
Mercury Hg
Metallic, can exist in variety of
chemical compounds
Table 2.1: Molecular Composition and characteristics of major pollutants
21
2.4 Air
Pollutants
In general term these are the additions that contribute to the air pollution. Air
pollutants are the physical, chemical, biological and radioactive materials, which
make the air undesirable for breathing. These are of worldwide range and variety.
However, they can be categorized in two groups.
2.5 Categories of Air Pollutants
2.5.1 Primary pollutants:
These pollutants are directly emitted into the atmosphere from the terrestrial
sources. These include the gases such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, Sulphur
dioxide, ammonia, hydrogen sulphide, nitric oxide, hydrogen fluoride, particulate like
dust, smoke, ash and fumes, radioactive substances and hydrocarbons. Primary
pollutants include pollen particles, salt-water spray, wind-blown dust and fine debris
from volcanic eruptions. Most man made pollution involves the products of
combustion smoke, carbon monoxide and lead, and oxide of nitrogen and sulphur
dioxide-through other industrial processes, crop spraying and atmospheric nuclear
explosions also contribute.
2.5.2 Secondary pollutants:
These are formed from chemicals and photochemical interaction between
primary pollutants and other atmospheric constituents. sulphur trioxide, nitrogen
dioxide, sulphur nitrates, aldehydes and ozone are cited as examples.
These generations depend on atmospheric, topographic and meteorological
conditions and the nature and concentration of the primary pollutants and the
atmospheric constituents.
Most air pollution arises in the urban environment, with a large portion of that
coming from automobiles. Six major types of substances, known as primary
22
pollutants, account for more than 90% of the nation-wide air pollution. These six
pollutants are (Sami, Ali et. al., 2004; Stern, 1984):
1) Carbon monoxide [CO]
2) Nitrogen oxides [NO
x
]
3) Sulphur dioxide [SO
2
]
4) Particulate matter [PM]
5) Hydrocarbons [HC]
6) Ozone [O
3
]
2.6 Ozone
(O
3
)
Ozone is a gas of blue colour. The combination of hydrocarbons and oxides of
nitrogen in automobile exhaust and sunshine leads to the formation of ozone and
other photochemical oxidants. A host of products are generated in the atmosphere
through the interaction of nitric oxide, sunlight and hydrocarbons. These include
ozone, peroxyacetyl nitrate, and acrolein. Oxygen molecules can absorb ultraviolet
radiation directly, causing them to split into two atoms of oxygen that eventually go
on to form ozone, this occurs to significant extent only high in the atmosphere.
Table 2.1: Formation of Ozone
23
Another mechanism is necessary to create the highly reactive atomic form of
oxygen and then ozone in the air that people actually breathe. Nitrogen dioxide is a
very efficient absorber of the ultraviolet light that does not reach the earth's surface.
As nitrogen dioxide absorb such radiation, it is broken down into NO and O. This O
combines with the O
2
to form O
3
.
In cities, 95-98% of the carbon monoxide in the air is from human sources and
the levels of carbon monoxide are many times higher than the average level in the
natural world. Carbon monoxide averages about 0.1 ug/m
3
of air, concentrations may
reach levels of 80-150mg/m
3
in heavy traffic. Prolonged exposure to concentrations
as low as 50 ppm can impair judgment and reflexes (Kupchella, 1989).
2.8 Sulphur
Dioxide
Sulphur dioxide is a gas poisonous to both plants and animals. Coal burning,
electrical power plants are blamed for producing most of the sulphur dioxide
problem. On the average, 70% of the sulphur dioxide in the air over cities comes
from the utilities. Fuels vary greatly in their sulphur content. High sulphur coal from
certain locales might have as much as 5% sulphur. Natural gas contain only a trace
amounts of sulphur; this is why, when controls were first placed on sulphur dioxide
emissions, many plants, factories, and power generating stations switched from coal
to natural gas. Sulphur dioxide gas is itself a poison, but it can react with ozone,
hydrogen peroxide, water vapour, and other substances in the atmosphere to form
sulphuric acid. It is one of the strongest acids known; it is able to corrode limestone,
metal and clothing, and it have a devastating effect on delicate respiratory tissue. Its
threshold level is 0.5 to 1.0 ppm and level at which even normal people experience
bronchial spasms is 1.0 ppm and EPA's 24-hour standard is 0.14 (Kupchella, 1989).
According to Environment Protection Agency, the probable median health
effects, on which the ozone standard of 0.12 ppm was based, are that 0.15 ppm
produces chest discomfort, irritation of respiratory tract, and reduction of pulmonary
functions; at 0.17 ppm, asthma, emphysema, and chronic bronchitis are aggravated;
24
and at 0.18 ppm there is reduced resistance to bacterial infection. The allowable
concentration of ozone in industry is 0.05 ppm. However, in some industries,
concentration of ozone can occasionally reach nearly 1 ppm; this level is also
sometimes reached in acute air pollution episode and causes major problem as given
in the Table 2.2.
2.7 Carbon
Monoxide
It is colourless, odourless, and tasteless gas slightly lighter than air. Everyone
is aware that an idling automobile produce considerable amount of this pollutant.
Human beings contribute about 10% of carbon monoxide load dumped into the
atmosphere and nearly all of this comes from incomplete combustion, largely in the
automobile of fuel. Naturally produced carbon monoxide comes mixed with methane
and other substances in marsh gases and other gases emitted from decaying material.
Carbon monoxide also escapes from forests and grass fires and volcanoes. Some
formed through chemical reactions in the upper atmosphere. Human generated
carbon monoxide is a problem because most of what we generate is dumped into the
areas in which we also live and breathe.
2.9 Oxides
of
Nitrogen
When air is fed into a combustion mixture, particularly when the combustion is
occurring, at a temperature above 2000
o
F, the oxygen and the nitrogen present in the
air as O
2
and N
2
combines to form nitric oxide. Nitric oxide is not thought to be very
harmful and does not do much damage because it cannot readily dissolve in water in
tissues. However, through the action of sunlight, nitric oxide can combine with
oxygen to form nitric oxide. Nitrogen dioxide is a radish-brown toxic gas that has
considerable environmental impact Nitrogen dioxide is similar to sulphur dioxide in
many reaction with substances in the atmosphere, nitrogen dioxide is converted into
inorganic nitrates, peroxyacetyl nitrate, and nitric acid. Natural agents like soil
25
bacteria produce far greater amounts of the oxides of nitrogen than humanity does by
its fires. Nitrogen dioxide is produced in the combustion of coal, oil, natural gas, and
motor vehicle fuel and whenever temperatures are high enough to cause atmospheric
nitrogen and oxygen to combine. EPA's quality standard for oxides of nitrogen is
0.05 ppm (Kupchella, 1989).
2.10 Particulate Matter
Small solid particles and liquid droplets, collectively called as particulate, are
present in the air in great numbers, and at times they constitute a serious problem.
However, particulate pollution has multiple components, including sulphate salts,
sulphuric acid droplets, salts of metals, dust from finely divided particles of carbon or
silica, liquid sprays and mist. The size of particulate matter is an important
characteristic. Individual particulate are measured in micrometres. Particulates range
in size from 0.005 um to about 100 um.
2.11 Hydrocarbons
The number of hydrocarbons involved in the air pollution is fairly large.
Natural sources contribute huge quantities of these substances. Plants, particularly
trees emit hydrocarbons. Most of the plants, which produce terpenes, belong to the
coniferous family and the mytaceace family.
Automobiles produce most of the pollutant hydrocarbons added to the
atmosphere through the activities of man. Some important air pollutants, their
anthropogenic sources and their health effects have been described in table 2.2.
26
Air pollutants
Major anthropogenic
sources
Effects on human beings
Particulate
Industrial combustion of fuels
Toxic effects through several
mechanisms including interference
with respiratory tract
Sulphur
dioxide
Combustion of fuels in
industrial processes
Irritation of respiratory system
diminished lung function,
aggravates asthma
Carbon
monoxide
Transportation and
agricultural burning
Toxic, easily enter blood with
increasing concentrations, headache
Nitrogen
dioxide
Transportation
Toxic respiratory tract problems
with increasing concentration, nasal
irritation breathing discomfort,
death of animals
Ozone
Secondary pollutants derived
from reactions with sunlight
and oxygen
Toxic with increasing
concentration, nose and throat
irritation fatigue, lack of
coordination.
Hydrocarbons
Automobiles, Industrial
processes, Evaporation of
organic solvents, Agricultural
burning
Irritate mucous membrane
Table 2.2: Summary of sources and health effects of major air pollutants
27
2.12 Sources and Causes of Air Pollutants
Nature puts greater quantities of bad things into the air that human do. Sulphur
dioxides, oxides of nitrogen, carbon dioxide, methane, hydrocarbons, and particulate
emanate from volcanoes, swamps, forests, natural fires, and the action of wind on soil
not covered by vegetation.
Volcanoes contribute great amounts of dust and particulate matter as well as
noxious gases. Organic decay in tropical forests and other places puts a variety of
gaseous compounds like methane into the atmosphere, and forests contribute various
organic compounds including ketones, aldehydes and other complex hydrocarbons,
which can participate in the generation of ozone.
2.12.1 Technology as a General Source
Modern technology is more costly, more energy consuming and tend to pollute
more that the technologies it has replaced over the years. Beyond the impression that
we do lead somewhat better and happier lives today, close inspection seems to reveal
that we have to pay more, in terms of energy and deterioration of the environment,
for equivalent units of economic goods produced than we did in decades past.
Electrical power generation is responsible for the significant fraction of air pollution
problems.
2.12.2 Transportation and Air Pollution (The Mobile Sources)
Human generated air pollution sources can be divided into mobile and
stationary sources. Stationary sources include factories, incinerators, and other kind
of non-mobile sources.
Mobile sources tend to be much smaller, much more plentiful, and much more
widely dispersed than stationary sources and are difficult to monitor.
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