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o Introduction and definitions
o Division of text
o Written and spoken texts
o characteristic of Written text
o characteristic of spoken text
Chapter Eight
...89
Texts Types
o Literary texts
o Technical texts
Chapter Nine
...101
Literary Texts for Translation and Analysis
Chapter Ten
...108
Technical and scientific texts for Translation and
Analysis
References
...116
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Chapter One
Linguistics and Translation
What is Linguistics?
Linguistics is the scientific study of language. That
means observing language use, forming hypotheses about
it, testing these hypotheses and refining them on the basis
of the evidence collected. Linguistics sometimes refers to
all the branches of language study which are in side the
academic discipline of linguistics (some are not ), but it
sometimes refers just to the branch which has the most
privileged status, linguistics proper as people occasionally
say. Linguistics proper, which is the study of the
'grammar' in a broad sense: the sound system of the
language ('Phonology'), the grammatical structure of
words (Morphology) and of sentence (Syntax), and more
formal aspects of meaning (Semantics). Fair Clough
(1996: 5). There are also some branches of linguistics:
(1) Phonemics: which is a science that classifies
phones into phonemes.
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(2) Applied linguistics: which is a science that deals
with the application of significant linguistic findings in
the field of teaching language to native speakers or
foreigners
(3) Comparative linguistics: which compares
languages of common origin.
(4) Historical linguistics: which traces changes
undergone by a Linguistics has won widespread
acceptance within the human sciences and beyond for the
centrality of language among human phenomena, and of
language study among the human sciences. It has done so
by developing an impressive array of systematic
techniques for the description of language in other human
sciences. (Ibid:5)
What is language?
Language is a medium of communication.
Communication implies carrying of a message or
receiving of a message. Language is a system this shows
it is a system this shows it is systematic at phonetic ,
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phonemic, morphemic morphological syntactic and
semantic levels. Each language has these sequential levels
of structure phonemic are hierarchically interrelated
phonemes String together to build morphemes which may
combine together to form lexemes which are in turn
juxtaposed to form sentences (Alkhuli :1976)
Language and a text
Language is what the words are saying and how they
express it that is a definition worth committing to memory
because it explains that language can be virtually any
aspect of a text when you examine language you should
start by examining the meaning it represents secondly
looking at the ways it works language is not just words
and literary devices but their meanings and their effect.
Without considering the meaning conveyed by words
language is well meaningless language is also the
structure of a text, the genre in which it is written the
conventions and codes it uses and any means of
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communicating a message which may include very subtle
ways: Stephen (2003).
The Creativity of Linguistic Knowledge :
Linguistic knowledge of a language entails knowledge
of words phrases morphemes and sentences It also
embodies and cover the sound of language and how they
may be "string together to form meaningful units. To
quote Nina (2003): knowing the sound system of a
language includes move than knowing the inventory of
sounds It includes knowing which sounds may start a
word knowing the sounds and sound patterns in English
language constitutes only one port of our linguistic
knowledge. Knowing a language is also to know that
certain concepts or meanings.
Meaningful aspect of a language is also very important
because if we wish to communicate then clarity of the
meaning should be very much there in the system
grammar words and many other aspects of the language
ensure that what we wish to convey only that is to be
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conveyed to the receiver of the communication. A proper
usage of the system the alphabet for writing and sounds
while speaking will definitely help us to convey our
message forcefully and effectively
Metalinguistic and Meta cognitive Knowledge:
Meta linguistic knowledge is our knowledge of how
language works Meta linguistics knowledge includes
knowledge letters and sounds and how they relate
knowledge of words and words parts, knowledge of
sentences and their parts, and knowledge of texts and
genres and how then are organized.
Meta cognitive knowledge is our knowledge of what
we know simply put, this knowledge permits us to reflect
on our planning, good setting, processing of task,
monitoring of progress, recognition of problems and
repair of problems.
Meta cognitive knowledge represents a basic way to
understand leaning, good setting, processing of task
monitoring of progress, recognition of problems and
12
repair of problems Meta cognitive knowledge represents a
basic way to understand learning strategies and especially
our explicit and conscious use of translation of texts
strategies . Bialy Stock (2001).To quote Goldman (2000,
p. 353)" knowledge of structure is clearly important in
efficient and strategic processing of text''. To quote also
Jetton (2000, p.292.), knowledge of text genres and
structures allows readers and translators to access in
formation more readily and accurately, as they construct
their personal interpretations of the text.
Linguistic and processing differences between English
language and Arabic Language.
1.
Greater metalinguistic and meta cognitive
awareness in Arabic language setting.
2.
Varying language transfer influences.
3.
Differing amounts of lexical grammatical and
discourse knowledge at initial stage of Arabic
language and English language.
13
4.
Arabic language and English language belong
sharply to different families. English is an indo-
European, west Germanic language and Arabic is a
Semitic language
Note: More details about the differences between the
two languages is forth coming in the next chapters.
Examples of translation: (word order)
1- In Arabic verbal sentences normally have the verb
first and then the subject, where as in English language
all sentences usually start with the subject, followed by
the verb. In this case the translator has to begin his
Arabic sentences with a verb and with the subject in the
case of English.
1-
Translation is taught at Teacher's colleges on wider
scale.
0
(ii) Another example is the position of the adjective:
in English it precedes the noun while it proceed it in
Arabic.
14
1.Anewplane
2.A good man
3.If there are more adjectives for the same noun the
adjective should be ordered and classified. (adjective
order).
Examples :
1.A front- drive four seats, comfortable green new car
Rule of adjective order in English:
Possessive or articles quantity general size
shape age colour pattern material
Nationality adjectival noun .
1-
I bought four white metal garden chair yesterday
2-
His extremely limited knowledge of translation was
an anomaly ridiculed by his translators
-
)
(
"
"
"
"
.
15
-
"
"
.
But it we translate it as English context it may sound
less successful.
)
10
.(
16
Chapter Two
What is Translation ?
Definition:
The German linguist and translation theorist Werner
Koller (1998) puts forward the following working
definition of what he take translation to be the result of
a text processing activity by means of which a source
language text, is transposed into a target- language text .
Between the resultant text in L2 (the target-language text)
and the source text in L1 (the source language text) these
exist a relationship, which can be designed as a
translational, or equivalence relation.
Catford (1965) defines also translation as: the
replacement of textual material in one language, 5L,
(source language) by equivalent textual material in
another language (TL) (Target Language), thus Catford
differentiates between translation and other linguistic
forms and linguistic production, such as transference or
17
loan words. He claims the entitlement of translation
within the linguistics theory.
Translation is the processes and methods used to
convey the meaning of the source language into the target
language, by means of using:
[1] words which already have an equivalent meaning in
Arabic language- for example
1- weep
2- A teacher
[2] New words for which no ready made equivalent
meaning in Arabic language before hand:
E. g : 1) Aids
2) Satellite
[3] Foreign words written in Arabic letter (transliteration).
E. g : 1-Oxygen
2-Computer
[4] Foreign words changed to suit Arabic pronunciation,
spelling and grammar.
E. g: 1- Democracy
18
2- Topography.
Equivalence Relations between English (SL) and
Arabic language (T L):
In Translation, there is what Koller (1979) sees as a
double linkage to the source text and to the
communicative conditions on the receiver's side.
Equivalence relations are differentiated in the light of the
double bind and a number of what Koller carefully labels:
(1979 : 91) :
1-
Formal equivalence:
S L and TL words having similar orthographic or
phonological features
2- Referential or Denotative Equivalence :
SL and TL words referring to the same thing in the
real words.
3-Connotative Equivalence :
SL and TL words triggering the same or similar
associations in the minds of speakers of the two language.
4-Text normative Equivalence:
19
SL and TL words being used in the same or similar
contexts in their respective language.
5-Pragmatic or Dynamic Equivalence:
SL and TL words having the same effect on their
respective readers
According to Hatim (2001):
The scheme of Koller's five types of equivalence may
usually be compared with various trends which have
either pulled in the direction of quantitative Criteria or,
alternatively, extended outward to incorporate textual
Criteria.
The translation scholar, Otto Kade (1968), puts forward
a quasi-mathematical typology along the following lines:
A. one-to-one equivalence, when there is a single
expression in the TL for a single SL expression.
B. One to much equivalence when more than one TL
expression is available for a single SL expression.
20
C. One to part of one equivalence when a TL
expression that coves part of a concept is designated by a
single SL expression
D. Nil equivalence when no TL expression exists for an
SL expression (Cited in Hatim, 2001: 29)
Differences between translation and Transliteration:
Translation process is seen to be an example of
discursive production determined by the full range of
texts and translations which already exist in any given
culture and the cultured adaptation (Ibid ,32)
Accordion to Leuvan Zwart (1989:, 54): The
translator's choice as to the main objective of his
translation, the objective which governs all decisions
made during the translation process.
Translation is straight for ward: it is expressing the
meaning of one language in an other.
Transliteration is representing the letters of a word in
one alphabet as closely as possible using the letters of an
other. Russian and Greek for example, which have their
21
own alphabets, are usually shown in English in letters of
the Roman alphabet, by attempting to imitate the sound.
Because transliteration can only approximate, the
adaptation of letters from one alphabet, to another can
vary in different texts, so there is sometimes disagreement
over how Arabic names, for example are spell in English.
Languages such as Chinese, which use characters instead
of an alphabet, present even greater difficulties for
accurate transliteration into the Roman alphabet.
Examples of Transliteration:
1.
Beijing or Peking
Of all the new designation of place-names proposed by
the United Nations, Beijing and Peking remain the most
inconsistent in use Peking is the traditional British name
for the capital of the People's Republic of China the name
is still used in most flares and encyclopedias. Beijing
[pron-bayDJING ] is the transliteration of the Chinese
name. The Foreign office has taken Beijing on board, but
the Chris Patten Governor of Hong Kong, favor Peking.
22
The BBC officially use Beijing, while newspapers vary,
some staying with Peking.
:
-----
----
A The transliteration of this text as follows:
Ana Lastu Kalfarasha Ateru Min Fananin ila Fanan
Arshufu min Rahiga AL zhar wa Ahtafizo Bili lizati.
Innma Ana kal nahal ati arshufu min Rahigiha
Wa A khrijoho lokomg Sukbar aton, Sukara
The translation of the above text as follows:
I am not like a butterfly which flies from flower to
another sucking its juice keeping some to itself but Iam a
honeybee which delivers the same to you in drops of
sugar, the in place of one .
23
The Relationship between Linguistics and
Translation:
The relationship between linguistics and translation is
very clear and obvious. The basic material of translation
depends on a linguistic theory of translation. Some
linguistics scholars say translation is human behavior and
is praised by every human being in a stage of his life.
Roman Jaksbsen points the human being understanding
for thing depends up on representing the linguistic signs
(words phrases) with other signs .He considers this
method as basic process of translation. He also says there
are three types of translation.
(1)Replacing linguistic signs in the same language.
.
(2) Replacing linguistic signs in a certain language by
linguistic in another language.
.
(3) Replacing linguistic signs by non linguistic signs.
24
The first type of translation includes vocabulary
explanations, interpretation in the same language.
:
.
)
(
:
.
:
.
2. Edgar: Yet better thus, and known to be contemn'd
Than still contemn'd and flatter'd.
To be worst.
The lowest and most dejected thing of fortune stands
still in esperance, lives not in fear
The Lamentable change is from the best.
3-Paraphrasing:
25
Edgar:- it is better to know that you are hated by the
world than to be secretly hated and openly fattened. There
is hope even for the most lovely and miserable creative,
he can not live in fear of going any lower. The terrible
change to be moaned is from the happiest state.
Source
language
Target
language
.:
The Solitary
Reaper
O,listen for the vale profound is over flowing with the
sound No Nightingale did ever chant More well come
notes to weary bands of travelers in some shady haunt
Among Arabian sound.
.
26
.
3
-
This type of translation is different from the two
previous types. This type does not depend on a language
completely as the first and the second type. In this case,
the linguistic signs (words) are translated into drawings or
music or colours and dance or to any type of non-linguistic
signs which may express the meaning in the source text.
This activity is very and familiar in the human being's
behaviour especially in civilized societies in the present
Many Shakespeare's plays were translated into pieces of
music or to beautiful classical ballets.
27
Vertical and Horizontal Translation
.:
George Steiner in his book After Babel 1975
wrote a bout the translation in the same language ;
...reconsider a type of understanding is a pattern
of translation.
.
Translation as he thinks is divided into two type
vertical Translation and Horizontal translation.
Vertical Translation:
Vertical Translation which exists across two ages or
more
.
.
.
28
Horizontal Translation:
Horizontal translation exists in the same age and in the
same language.
:
.
Examples:
1.Bermuda Triangle:
Bermuda triangle covers a vast area of nearly four million
square kilometers between Bermuda and Puerto Rico, an
area in which many ships and aircrafts have disappeared
without trace- Reasons given for these vary from
mendacities, such as the great depth of the sea and
exceptionally strong currents, to little green men from Mars
and site of Atlantic .
Expression new usage and replacing:
This expression has been used in other con texts for a
disaster the completely engulfs a person or an organization.
When Norman Lamont, presented his first Budget in March
29
1991, a political writer commented It has got the
government out of the Bermudas triangle of the poll tax :
1.The usage of hand shaking:
Computer language uses many terms to show a belief in
the nean- human intelligence of the machine. Handshaking
previously reserved for humans, is the standard word for a
connection made across an interface of ten between two
computers operating at a distance from each other.
The difference between Translation and Interpreting.
Translation as (a medium) is divided into two parts:
(i)Translation
Translation is used for conveying literary scientific and
philosophical work.
(ii)Interpreting which is used for business, tourist newsy
matters.
Interpreting:
Interpreting is divided of three types:
(i)
simultaneous interpreting
:
30
(ii)consecutive interpreting
:
simultaneous interpreting means 'the translation of speech
and speech are in the same time.
Simultaneously- this happen in international conferences.
Translation of sight:-
Translation of sight is translation of written text to oral text
in an other language in this respect.the translator reads the
original text silently or aloud, then he translates it orally.
This kind of translation is used in scientific fields. In the
training institutes of translation to train the student of
interpreting.
.
.
.
.
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- , 2015, The Ambit of English/Arabic Translation, Hamburg, Bedey Media GmbH, https://www.anchor-publishing.com/document/298710
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