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Leadership What are the challenges for a leader in Outdoor Life Activities?
2
2.
WHAT IS LEADERSHIP?
"Leadership is one of the most observed and least understood phenomena on earth." (Burns,
1978)
Leadership is a process of influence. People who become group leaders influence other
members often to identify, create, work toward, achieve and of course share mutually
acceptable goals. In such situations often more than one group member emerges to fulfill
different leadership responsibilities. "In outdoor organizations, a sponsoring agency appoints
and designates leaders as being in charge of the group." (Priest, 2005:3) These leaders hold
legal and moral responsibilities for teaching and supervising their groups as well as care for
security and protect the natural environment.
Facilitating the Outward Bound process the leader directs the learning process by serving
learners in a number of roles. Some of these are:
Translater helping the learner to interpret as well as reflect on the experience
Initiater engineering the experiences
Maintainer keeping the motivation and energy level high
Authority holding influence within the group
Guardian being responsible for the group safety
Exemplar modeling behavior patterns expected of the group
The Term "outdoor leaders" can include many different types of leaders such as teachers,
youth and community workers, countryside and urban rangers, outdoor centre and field study
centre stuff, Scout and Guide leaders. Mentioning this types their goals might be also related
to different aspects such as education, recreation, personal or social development. But the
most important thing is if there is an interest to learn in, about and for the environment.
Outdoor leaders must be aware of distinctions between outdoor sport, outdoor recreation and
outdoor education. Their approaches are quite different even they may involve the same
activity. For example orienteering can be highly competitive where the aim is to be fastest or
a kind of enjoyable recreation while exploring an area by getting exercise and fresh air. It is
moreover an excellent activity to encourage people to co-operate, make decisions and take
responsibility. The point is that the outdoor leader should know aims, the choices available
and appreciate the potential for gaining different skills and experiences. (Cooper, 1998)
Leadership What are the challenges for a leader in Outdoor Life Activities?
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2.1. History
of
Leadership
Human beings have always been keenly interested in leaders and in leadership. Confucius
sought laws of order between leaders and subordinates. Plato described an ideal republic with
philosopher-kings providing wise and judicious leadership. Later, Plato and his colleagues
established the Paidea, a school for leadership in early Greece. In the sixteenth century, the
Italian Niccolo Machiavelli illuminated another side of leadership, the more practical one.
The word "leader" first appeared in the English language in the 1300s. It comes from the root
leden meaning "to travel" or "show the way." Indeed, the scientific study of leadership has
arisen primarily in the United States and almost exclusively since the turn of the twentieth
century. Fields as divergent as political science, psychology, education, history, agriculture,
public administration, management, anthropology, biology, military sciences, philosophy, and
sociology have all contributed to an understanding of leadership. (Internet: Sorenson)
In the early 1900's, leadership was seen as an innate quality. All of the "great ones" had it and
everyone else admired those superb individuals which are born to lead. In the 1930's,
leadership was defined as a characteristic "group theory" that one could learn and develop
with the assistance of a respected mentor. "...interaction between specific traits of one person
and other traits of the many, in such a way that the course of action of the many is changed by
the one." (Bogardus, 1934) In 1948 the "trait theory" was common, General Omar N. Bradley
defined leadership as, "...the art of influencing human behaviour through ability to directly
influence people and direct them toward a specific goal." In the 50´s the "behaviour theory"
came up. A definition which was offered by General Maxwell D. Taylor in 1958, "Leadership
is the art of influencing and directing men in such a way as to obtain their willing obedience,
confidence, respect and loyal cooperation in order to accomplish a mission." In the 1960´s
and 70´s contingency and situational leadership established where behaviours succeeded in
specific situations. "...acts by persons which influence other persons in a shared direction."
(Seeman, 1960) "...a process in which an individual takes initiative to assist a group to move
towards the production goals that is acceptable to maintain the group, and to dispose the needs
of individuals within the group that compelled them to join it." (Boles and Davenport, 1975)
(Internet: Leadership Theories)
In the 1980s, having tried and discarded all of these fragmentary approaches, leadership
researchers determined that "leadership is simply doing the right thing to achieve excellence.
Leadership What are the challenges for a leader in Outdoor Life Activities?
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In 1986, General John Wickler's came up with a new leadership definition, "the process by
which an individual determines direction and influences others to accomplish the mission of
the organization." It's true, not only do leaders use their talents and experience to influence
others; they also focus only on those activities necessary to achieve a desired outcome.
It is important to note that the primary measurement of leadership success is the final outcome
or result. Every leader is 100% accountable for the bottom-line results of the team. Great
leaders are the first to give the credit for successful results to the team. These same great
leaders are the first to accept the blame personally when the team fails to perform. In this
same spirit, President Harry S. Truman subscribed to the famous leadership definition; "The
Buck Stops here!" derives from the slang expression "pass the buck" meaning passing
responsibility to someone else. (Internet: Gorham)
2.2. Leadership
Styles
"First, a word on paradoxes. Leadership is loaded with them...Performing performances acts
every day is leadership." (Jack Welch)
The ways in which influences are expressed are leadership styles. They can be categorized in
many different ways. For example a leader can be seen as telling, selling, testing, consulting,
joining and delegating in efforts to influence. These styles can be grouped into three sets of
pairs to define three outdoor leadership styles that form a continuum of decision-making
power. (Priest, 2005)
Autocratic telling or selling and is characterized by an authoritarian approach in
which the leader holds complete power over decision making and dictate the needed
response
Democratic testing or consulting and involves shared decision making with the
leader and the group working together to solve problems
Abdicratic joining or delegating and it is an outgrowth of the "laissez-faire" or
leaving to do approach in which the leader abdicate all decision making power to the
group and agree to abide by their resolutions.
Style becomes the key to the formulation and implementation of strategy and plays an
important role in the group activity.
Leadership What are the challenges for a leader in Outdoor Life Activities?
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2.3.
How to be an effective Outdoor Leader?
"There is no such thing as a universal set of personality traits common to all successful
leaders" (Cox, 2002:347)
Different situations require different kinds of knowledge and the person possessing that
knowledge demanded by a certain situation tends in the best managed business to become the
very leader of the moment. One leader might be successful in one situation but not necessarily
in other situations. Behling and Schriesheim (1976) developed a typology of leadership theory
which categorizes the four major approaches for effective leadership: (Cox, 2002)
The leader possesses universal personality traits that will make it successful in any
situation
The leader possesses universal behaviors that will make it successful in any situation
The leader possesses specific personality traits that will make it successful in some
situations but not all
The leader possesses specific behaviors that will make it successful in some situations
but not all.
Once this has been accomplished it is possible to study and test a theory consistent with
predictions and to see how they fit into typology scheme in order to be a successful leader.
On the surface these attributes are in all effective leaders: Ability to communicate,
dependability, vision, confidence; the skills of planning, decision making, resource and
knowledge acquisition, monitoring, setting time frames. These are the objective skills of the
leader. The deeper attributes of leaders include: loyalty, due process, gratitude, respect
determination and courage to learn, change, achieve, confront, challenge. With all this the
energy to make things happen, skilfully mixed with empathy, judgemental, experience, strong
values, commitment; yet they will be sensitive to those whose support is needed; they have a
deeper ability to envision and know to believe in themselves and work with and through
others which comes from self motivation, commitment, respect and the deep confidence
within. (Internet: Lewis)
"A leader is best when people barely know he exists, not so good when people obey and
acclaim him, worst when they despise him...but of a good leader when his work is done, his
aim fulfilled they will say ´we did this ourselves´." (Lao-tse)
Leadership What are the challenges for a leader in Outdoor Life Activities?
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3.
PRACTICAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL SKILLS
"Method is much, technique is much, but inspiration is even more" (Benjamin Nathan
Cardozo)
In a lot of organizations there is a huge divide between rational and emotional leadership.
"Good thinking and decision making must include the best of both the intuitive and analytical
points of view." (Lucas, 2006:45)
Several studies have been completed on outdoor leadership competency and curricula. In
1981 Green surveyed 61 outdoor leaders and developed a college course curriculum for land-
based outdoor pursuit leaders based on their responses. The knowledge of this and
confirmation of some other works should be obtained in a curriculum and furthermore
discussed in addition in an international study. Through researching there have been outlined
12 critical core competences from the Priest studies from 1987: (Priest 2005)
technical skills
safety skills
environmental skills
organizational skills
instructional skills
facilitation skills
flexible leadership style
experience-based judgment
problem-solving skills
decision-making skills
effective communication
professional ethics
Creating the appropriate mixture in the right settings to make them "golden" outdoor leaders
the dilemma of utilizing would still be to face. Individual certification, program accreditation
and outdoor leadership preparation programs are examples of processes used to prepare
effective outdoor leaders. Still the best combination and sequence of these programs remain
unknown. "The adventure programming profession is still seeking its Philosopher's stone."
(Priest, 2005:7)
In the next chapter I want to outline the most important core competences for an effective
outdoor leadership. To expand in the whole analyses of these studies would go beyond the
scope of this essay so I specialize in some practical and organizational skills as a part of the
competences. I believe that those skills are very important aspects to succeed as an outdoor
leader.
Leadership What are the challenges for a leader in Outdoor Life Activities?
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3.1.
Technical Skills
Technical skills serve as one of the foundations for conducting any outdoor experience as
much as the process in which people grow. Without appropriate knowledge of those skills it
might be even dangerous or impossible to conduct and other techniques and capabilities might
be useless. In outdoor life no matter what the activity is a leader needs to be capable in a
variety of generic competency areas. These areas should include those skills applicable to all
outdoor experiences such as weather interpretation, first aid, trip planning, performance, skill,
physical fitness and mental awareness above and beyond the call of the location, activity and
participants. But to note the specific competences a leader should possess to teach and lead
effectively change according to geographic areas, team goals and environment conditions.
(Priest, 2005)
To give an example in cross-country skiing when teaching and being on a trip a leader should
know the following techniques: (Kompendium, 2006/2007)
Uphill and downhill techniques such as diagonal striding, single and double poling,
skating, telemarking, snowplowing, step turns, parallel turns, sidestepping, angular
traverses and herringbones
Techniques for falling down and getting up also with a heavy backpack on
Waxing techniques for expected weather conditions as well as nonwax conditions
Equipment selection for both cold and warm weather conditions such as skis, poles,
boots, snow shovels and saws
Correct equipment use includes how to fit skis and poles to body height and weight
Equipment care includes how to fix loose bindings, broken ski tips and broken poles
Equipment repair includes carrying a kit containing wire, pliers, screwdrivers, duct
tape and spare ski tips, pole shafts and baskets as well as bindings
Furthermore a leader should understand how to layer closes when in activity and when
standing still and how to fit hand and footwear to prevent frostbite. Being on an outdoor
trip overnight it is important that the leader must know how to build emergency shelters
such as snow caves or igloos. In addition to that improvise evacuation sleds from skis and
backpacks, having enough fuel or wood to melt snow to obtain adequate fluids.
All in all without those technical skills a leader will be ineffective.
Leadership What are the challenges for a leader in Outdoor Life Activities?
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3.2.
Environmental Skills
Planning before entering the outdoor environment with a group is one of the key elements in
leading a successful trip. "Leave no trace" lists several aspects to bear in mind when
preparing an environmentally outdoor experience: (Internet: Leave No Trace)
Knowing the area and what to expect includes risk-management and educational
purposes, sensitivity and popularity of the area, obtaining appropriate permits or
permissions for camping, considering the need to travel off-trail for any reasons and
traveling in areas that camping abuse better such as try grounds and trails instead of
wet and muddy ones
Stick to an appropriate group size because of the greater impact of larger groups
Select appropriate equipment such as lightweight stoves, freestanding tents and water
containers creates less impact on the environment
Repackage food before leaving to reduce litter, broken glass and surprise openings
"Leave nothing but footprints; take nothing but photographs; kill nothing but time" (Priest,
2005:115) It is an axiom and an excellent guide for traveling in outdoor environments. But
even footprints can be damaging the nature when trampling over vegetation or hiking on
surfaces that are durable or highly resistant to human impact. When it comes to a campsite
selection many factors are important. Such as flat and dry ground, the proximity of drinking
water, ground cover and most of all the absence of danger. The decision whether to use an
existing campsite or establish a new one is the most important of all depending also on the
size of the group.
"Pack and carry out all that you packed and carried in" (Priest, 2005:117)
It is a basic rule as well as respecting local rules such as not to disturb the trap lines, caches
or camps of others. Making fires just when needed, using soap for dishes, hands and body's
rarely and cooking and handling food well downwind from the camp as the aroma will attract
local animals. For the most part, minimum-travel means carrying out litter, solid-food waste
and sanitary products as well as burying fecal matter, liquid foods and dishwater. In addition
the planned program and activities should be outlined to the respect of the environment and
its indigenous populations.
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- , 2007, Leadership in Outdoor Life Activities, Hamburg, Bedey Media GmbH, https://www.anchor-publishing.com/document/307455
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