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iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION ... i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...ii
ABSTRACT ... iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ... iv
LIST OF TABLES ... vi
LIST OF FIGURES ...vii
ABBREVIATIONS ... viii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ... 1
1.1 BACKGROUND ... 1
1.2 JUSTIFICATION/SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ... 3
1.3 OBJECTIVES ... 5
1.4 METHODOLOGY ... 5
1.5 SCOPE OF WORK ... 6
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ... 7
2.1 CONCEPTS OF CONCENTRATING SOLAR POWER ... 7
2.1.1 PARABOLIC TROUGH COLLECTOR ... 8
2.1.2 LINEAR FRESNEL COLLECTOR ... 9
2.1.3 PARABOLIC DISH COLLECTOR ... 10
2.1.4 SOLAR TOWER COLLECTOR ... 11
2.2 COMPARISON OF CSP TECHNOLOGIES ... 12
2.3 DEPLOYMENT OF CSP PLANTS ... 14
2.4 NIGERIA'S CSP POTENTIALS ... 17
CHAPTER THREE: CSP POTENTIAL OF STUDY SITES AND DATA
ACQUISITION ... 23
3.1 CSP POTENTIAL OF THE STUDY SITES ... 23
v
3.2 OVERVIEW OF OPERATING CSP PLANTS ... 24
3.2.1 GEMASOLAR CSP PLANT ... 24
3.2.2 ANDASOL 1 CSP PLANT ... 25
3.2.3 STUDY SITES ... 26
3.3 OVERVIEW OF THE MODELLING SOFTWARE ... 26
3.4 DATA ACQUISITION ... 27
3.5 SYSTEM SIMULATION PROCESS ... 29
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSIONS ... 37
4.1 TECHNICAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ... 37
4.1.1 ANNUAL ELECTRICAL ENERGY GENERATION ... 38
4.1.2 CAPACITY FACTOR ... 43
4.1.3 MONTHLY NET ELECTRICAL ENERGY OUTPUT ... 43
4.1.4 ANNUAL ENERGY FLOW ... 46
4.1.5 ANNUAL WATER USAGE ... 49
4.2 FINANCIAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ... 50
4.2.1 NET PRESENT VALUE ... 52
4.2.2 LEVELISED COST OF ELECTRICITY ... 52
4.2.3 ENERGY PRICE (FIT) ... 56
4.2.4 TOTAL COST OF INSTALLATION ... 56
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ... 58
5.1 CONCLUSION ... 58
5.2 RECOMMENDATION ... 60
REFERENCES: ... 61
APPENDIX ... 68
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Commercial Deployment of CSP Plants ... 14
Table 2.2: Utility-Scale CSP Capacity ... 15
Table 2.3: Estimated Solar CSP Potential of selected 14 states in Nigeria. ... 19
Table 3.1: Basic Topography and Meteorological Conditions of Study Sites ... 28
Table 3.2: System Characteristics/Specifications for Solar Tower CSP Plant ... 31
Table 3.3: System Characteristics/Specifications for Parabolic Trough CSP Plant .. 33
Table 3.4: Financial Assumptions for the study ... 36
Table 4.1: Performance Results of CSP Technologies at Sites ... 37
Table 4.2: Financial Results of CSP Technologies at Sites ... 51
Table D- 1: Monthly Net Electric Output of CSP Technologies for the study sites .. 69
Table D- 2: Annual Energy Flow of CSP Technologies for the study sites ... 70
Table D- 3: Nominal and Real LCOE of CSP Technologies for the study sites ... 71
Table D- 4: Monthly Direct Normal Radiation of study sites ... 71
Table D- 5: Effect of Cooling System and Solar Multiple on Annual Electrical
Energy Generation (GWh) of CSP Technologies considered ... 72
Table D- 6: Effect of Cooling System and Solar Multiple on Annual Water usage
(m
3
) of CSPTechnologies considered ... 72
Table D- 7: Effect of Cooling System and Solar Multiple on Real Levelised Cost of
Electricity (¢/kWh) of CSP Technologies considered ... 73
Table D- 8: Effect of Hour of Thermal Energy Storage on Annual Electrical Energy
Generation of Wet Cooling System CSP Technologies considered ... 73
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 2.1: Parabolic Trough Collector ... 9
Fig 2.2:Linear Fresnel Collector ... 10
Fig 2.3: Stirling/Parabolic Dish Collector ... 11
Fig 2.4: Solar Tower Collector ... 12
Fig. 2.5: Solar Radiation Map in Nigeria ... 19
Fig. 3.1:Map showing DNI of towns in Nigeria. ... 24
Fig. 4.1: effect of cooling system and solar multiple on annual electrical energy
generation of CSP technologies considered. ... 41
Fig. 4.2: Effect of hour of thermal energy storage on annual electrical energy
generation of CSP technologies considered. ... 42
Fig. 4.3: Monthly Net Electrical Energy Output for CSP Technologies at Minna site44
Fig. 4.4: Monthly Net Electrical Energy Output for CSP Technologies at Kano site44
Fig. 4.5: Monthly Net Electrical Energy Output for CSP Technologies at Sokoto site45
Fig 4.6: Monthly Direct Normal Irradiation at study sites ... 46
Fig. 4.7:Annual Energy Flow of CSP Technologies at Minna site ... 46
Fig. 4.8:Annual Energy Flow of CSP Technologies at Kano site ... 47
Fig. 4.9:Annual Energy Flow of CSP Technologies at Sokoto site ... 47
Fig 4.10: Effect of Cooling System and Solar Multiple on Annual Water Usage of
CSP Technologies considered. ... 50
Fig. 4.11: Nominal and Real LCOE for CSP Technologies at Minna site ... 53
Fig. 4.12: Nominal and Real LCOE for CSP Technologies at Kano site ... 53
Fig. 4.13: Nominal and Real LCOE for CSP Technologies at Sokoto site ... 54
Fig 4.14 shows the result of the effect of cooling system and solar multiple on
Levelised Cost of Electricity of CSP technologies considered. ... 55
Fig. A: Monthly Precipitation / Days of Precipitation ... 68
Fig. B: Monthly Precipitation / Days of Precipitation ... 68
Fig. C: Monthly Precipitation / Days of Precipitation ... 69
viii
ABBREVIATIONS
BOP
Balance
of
Plant
CSP
Concentrating
Solar
Power
CRS
Central
Receiver
System
DNI
Direct
Normal
Irradiation
°C
Degree
Celsius
°F
Degrees
Fahrenheit
°K
Degrees
Kelvin
EPW
Energy
Plus
Weather
EU
European
Union
GW
Giga Watt
GWe
Giga
Watt
-
electric
GWh
Giga
Watt
Hour
GWh
e
Giga
Watt
Hour
Electrical
GWh
t
Giga
Watt
Hour
Thermal
HTES
Hours of Thermal Energy Storage
HTF
Heat
Transfer
Fluid
IEA
International
Energy
Agency
IPP
Independent
Power
Producer
IRENA International
Renewable
Energy
Agency
ISCC
Integrated
Solar
Combined
Cycle
km
2
Kilometer
Square
kW
Kilo
Watt
ix
kWe
Kilowatt-
electric
kWh
Kilo
Watt
Hour
kWh/m
2
Kilowatt- hour per metre square
kWh/m
2
day
Kilowatt- hour per metre square per day
LCOE
Levelised
Cost
of
Energy
LFC
Linear
Fresnel
Collector
LFR
Linear
Fresnel
Reflector
m
Meter
m
3
Meter
Cube
MDGs
Millennium
Development
Goals
m
2
Meter
Square
MW
Mega Watt
MWe
Mega
Watt
-
electric
MWh
Mega
Watt
Hour
MWh/yr
Mega Watt Hour per year
MW
t
Megawatt
thermal
MWh
t
Megawatt Hour thermal
NASA
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NPV
Net
Present
Value
NREL
National
Renewable Energy Laboratory
OM
Operation
and
Maintenance
PE-1
Puerto Errado -1 Solar Thermal Plant
PE-2
Puerto Errado -2 Solar Thermal Plants
x
PTC
Parabolic
Trough
Collector
PV
Photovoltaic
REN
Renewable
Energy
SAM
Solar
Advisor
Model
SEGS
Solar
Energy
Generating
System
SM
Solar
Multiple
TES
Thermal
Energy
Storage
TWh
Tiga
Watt
Hour
TWh/yr
Tiga Watt Hour per year
UN
United
Nations
USA
United
State
of
America
US
¢
United
States
Cents
US
$
United
States
Dollars
US ¢/kWh
United States Cents per Kilowatt Hour
VAT
Value
Added
Tax
%
Percentage
$/kW
Dollars
per
Kilowatt
¢/kWh
Cents
per
Kilowatt
Hour
$
Dollars
1
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
Energy provision is an essential prerequisite for a nation's social and
economic development. Energy services enable fulfillment of basic human needs
such as adequate food supply, lighting, warmth, education and health, which are the
objectives of the United Nations (UN) Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
Access to adequate energy provision remains significant in achieving the MDGs.
The importance of alternative sources of energy to human health and the
environment has informed global renewable energy development through various
UN sustainable development programmes. Since the world's summit on sustainable
development held in Johannesburg in 2002, the need for renewable energy
development has gotten a great deal of attention from world leaders (Olumide and
Andrew, 2013).
Increasing worldwide demand for electricity coupled with growing concerns
about climate change and the need to reduce the environmental impact of
conventional fossil-fuel based power plants has led to the development of innovative
and more sustainable power generation solutions based on renewable resources
(Arobieke et al, 2012).
Nigeria is faced with acute electricity problems, which is hindering its
development notwithstanding the availability of vast natural resources in the
country. The electricity demand in Nigeria far outstrips the supply and the supply is
epileptic in nature (Sambo, 2008).
An analysis of the power generation capacity required to support the
Nigerian 20:2020 economic vision shows that, Nigeria will need to generate
electricity in the range of about 35,000 MW by 2020. This is based on the
assumption that the country will take low energy intensity (0.4) growth path
(Habib et al, 2012).
As at 2005, the nation has an installed capacity of approximately 6,538.3
MW. Out of this installed capacity, not more than 4,500 MW is ever produced
2
(Nwulu Agboola, 2011). In December, 2009, the total grid capacity stood at 8,876
MW. Out of this only 3,653 MW was available. Thus 41% of the installed capacity
is unavailable (Emovon et al, 2011). In 2012, the power generated was 3,080 MW
which falls well below capacity with a net electricity generation of 27 GWh
(http://www.eia.gov/beta/international/analysis). However, the energy demand is
always on the increase. For instance, the energy demand increased from 6,000 MW
in 2001 to 13,000 MW in 2013 with energy generation at 4,000 MW.
With the current population growth rate (2.7 %), the pressure on the
conventional energy infrastructure for the supply of energy demand will continue to
increase. Since the quantity of available energy from conventional resources cannot
meet the ever increasing energy demand , there is urgent need to aggressively pursue
the harnessing of the nation's renewable energy resources such as solar, wind and
biomass to meet future demand.
Among the renewable energy sources listed, solar energy is the most
appropriate to meet the current and future energy demand in view of its enormous
potentials. There exist various types of technologies that have been developed to
harvest the power from the sun. Photovoltaic (PV), which is direct conversion from
light energy into electricity, and concentrated solar thermal power called also
concentrating solar power (CSP), which uses mirrors to concentrate solar energy are
the two known technology types to utilise the solar energy. According to Habib et
al, 2012, while PV is suitable for small or off-grid solutions, CSP showed attractive
features to be installed in large scale.
To this regard, production of electrical energy from the sun through
Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) Plant is one of the major promising alternative
renewable power energy productions process because the sun is free, abundant and
inexhaustible.
The radiated energy by the sun can be converted into high temperature
thermal energy which is subsequently converted into mechanical energy (and
possibly into electricity) through thermodynamic cycles using Concentrating Solar
Power, CSP also called concentrated solar thermal(IEA, 2010). The basic concept of
CSP technology is relatively simple; it involves the concentration of the sun's Direct
Normal Irradiation (DNI), using lenses or mirrors. The sun's energy is amplified to
3
temperatures in the range of 400-1000
0
C. This heat is first transformed to
mechanical energy (by conventional steam cycle, Stirling engines or combined cycle
engines) then to electrical energy(OECD and IEA,2009).
At present, there are four categories of CSP, with similar modes of operation
but different ways of receiving and amplifying the sun's energy. The four categories
include; Parabolic Trough, Linear Fresnel Reflector (LFR), Solar Tower or Central
Receiver System (CRS) and Parabolic Dish or Dish Stirling systems. The four
categories can be divided into two groups based on how they concentrate irradiance
on the receiver. LFR and Parabolic trough designs are classified as line focus
systems. On the other hand, Solar Tower or Central Receiver System (CRS) and
Parabolic Dish designs are classified as point focus system. CSP technology is
projected to make a significant contribution to the future renewable energy
development according to the Global CSP outlook (2009). Based on an advanced
growth scenario, a higher capacity factor is projected from the technology leading to
a significant global power contribution of 7 % and 25 % in 2030 and 2050
respectively (Olumide and Andrew, 2013).
Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) has begun to achieve a growing
penetration into global electricity markets. In the last 6 years the installed capacity
of CSP has increased from 355 to 2550 MW (IRENA, 2012b; CSP World, 2013)
and according to reports from the International Energy Agency it is expected to
continue increasing up to 1500 GW by 2050 (Philibert et al, 2010).
1.2 JUSTIFICATION/SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Globally, the use of fossil fuels namely coal, oil, natural gases, etc. accounts
for about 70% of the total energy consumption. These energy sources are known to
produce harmful pollution, and contribute to greenhouse effects. Statistics have
shown that fossil fuels are fast depleting and that they are in their reserved stage.
Excessive combustion of fossil fuel for energy has potential contribution to negative
environmental consequences such as global warming. These factors, coupled with
the increasing world population, has created a need for the search of more reliable
and renewable energy sources that can meet the world ever increasing demand of
energy (Arobieke et al, 2012).
4
Nigeria like most African countries is still faced with acute problems in the
supply of electricity, which has tremendously hindered its development despite the
nation's enormous solar energy potentials. Nigeria is endowed with daily sunshine
that is averagely 6.25 hours, which ranges between about 6.5 hours and 3.5 hours
Northern region and Southern region of the nation respectively. It also has an annual
average daily solar radiation of about 3.5 kWh/m
2
/day in the coastal areas which is
in the Southern part of the country and 7.0 kWh/m
2
/day at the Northern boundary
(Bala et al, 2001. Nigeria receives about 4.851x 10
12
kWh of energy per day from
the sun (Okafor et al, 2010). This is equivalent to about 1.082 million tonnes of oil
equivalent (Mtoe) per day.
Based on the Nigeria land area of 924 x 103 km
2
and an average daily solar
radiation of 5.535kWh/m
2
/day, the country receives an average of 1.804 x 10
15
kWh
of solar energy annually. This annual solar energy insolation value is about 27 times
the nation total conventional energy resources in energy units and is over 117,000
times the amount of electric power generated in 1998 (Chendo, 2002). In other
words, about 3.7 % only of the national land area is needed to be utilised in order to
collect from the sun an amount of energy equal to the nation's conventional energy
reserve (Okafor et al, 2010).
The minimum direct normal irradiation is in the range of 4.5 7.5
kWh/m
2
/day in the Northern Nigeria with the highest in north-east part of the
country, which has met the minimum DNI threshold of 4.1 5.8kWh/m
2
/day needed
for economically viable concentrating solar power project. The total potential CSP
capacity for fourteen frontline northern states of Nigeria is estimated at 427,829 MW
and the electricity potential at 26,841 TWh/yr (Habib et al, 2012). However, only
one parabolic dish CSP has been reported to be in operation in Nigeria.
From the above, the current energy crisis which is responsible for the low per
capita electricity consumption of 121 kWh (www.tradingeconomics.com) in the
country will be solved through proper harnessing and utilization of the abundant
solar energy form. Also the desired rapid transformation of nation's socio-economic
well-being of the citizenry can be achieved.
5
1.3 OBJECTIVES
The main objective of this study is to simulate a 20 MW capacity turbine
Solar Tower and Parabolic Trough Concentrated Solar Power Technologies for
Minna, Kano, and Sokoto in Northern Nigeria.
The specific objectives include:
i.
To assess the technical performance of operating a given 20 MW
capacity turbine using two different Concentrated Solar Power
Technologies namely; Solar Tower and Parabolic Trough respectively at
the selected sites,
ii.
To compare the performance and financial viability of the CSP
Technologies at each selected site,
iii.
To evaluate the effect of CSP plant cooling system, solar multiple, and
hours of thermal energy storage on annual electrical energy generation,
water usage and Levelised cost of electricity.
1.4 METHODOLOGY
This study involves review of all the CSP Technology namely; Solar Tower,
Parabolic Trough, Parabolic/Dish Stirling, and Linear Fresnel.
Even though all the cities in the Northern Nigeria are potential sites for
operation of CSP plant based on the region Direct Normal Irradiation (4.5 7.5
kWh/m
2
/day), only three sites are selected for the study. The selection of the study
sites was done in such a way that each site represents one of the three tropical
savanna climate types in Northern Nigeria, namely; Guinea, Sudan and Sahel.
Minna represent Guinea region, Kano represent Sudan region, and Sokoto represent
Sahel region.
National Renewable Energy Laboratory's (NREL's) System Advisory Model
(SAM), one of the CSP plant modelling and analytical techniques was used to
simulate a 20 MW turbine capacity Solar Tower and Parabolic Trough CSP
technologies for the selected sites.
6
The study sites resource data file in Energy Plus Weather (EPW) format was
acquired from Meteonorm Meteorological Database and was uploaded into the
modelling software, SAM.
The CSP Plant specifications for the selected technology was primarily
sourced from; "Gemasolar" NREL/ Solar PACES website for Solar Power
technology, "Andasol-1" NREL/Solar PACES website for Parabolic Trough
technology, Study sites conditions and SAM help contents.
The financial assumptions for this study were compiled mainly from central
Bank of Nigeria and www.tradingeconomics.com/nigeria. The market considered
was Independent Power Producer.
1.5 SCOPE OF WORK
This study covers the simulation of 20 MW turbine capacity Solar Tower and
Parabolic Trough Concentrated Solar Power Plants for the three selected sites in
Northern Nigeria using National Renewable Energy Laboratory's (NREL's) System
Advisor Model (SAM). The study assumes the power unit of the system would be
installed by an Independent Power Producer (IPP).
7
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 CONCEPTS OF CONCENTRATING SOLAR POWER
Concentrated solar power (CSP) utilizes the sun as a source of heat which
can be exploited by concentrating that heat and using it to drive a heat engine or
steam turbine to produce power. CSP technology is not a new idea. The first patent
for a solar collector was granted in Germany in 1907. However, the first major effort
to exploit the sun as a heat source for power generation began in the USA after the
oil crises of the 1970s and the first commercial plants appeared in the late 1980s in
California. Funding for development and deployment of CSP plants tailed off soon
afterwards when cheap natural gas dominated the power generation market in most
parts of the developed world. However, the combination of global warming and
volatile gas prices has had a potent effect and both interest and investment in CSP
technology are now accelerating rapidly. With several major projects proposed,
under construction or recently entering service, there is a strong chance that CSP
technology can become a part of the mainstream, alongside wind, hydro and solar
photovoltaic technologies, as a key source of renewable energy for the future
(Andreas, et al, 2013).
The process of generating electricity from CSP is nearly the same with
conventional fossil fuel thermal plants with the difference being the fuel source. A
typical CSP plant uses reflectors and parabolic mirrors to focus the sun's rays onto a
heat collector. Heat transfer fluids such as synthetic oil are used to transfer heat from
the collector to heat exchangers where water is super-heated. The super-heated
steam runs a turbine which in turn drives a generator to generate electricity(Habib,
et al, 2012).
There is a striking semblance between conventional fossil- fuel power plant
and Concentrated Solar Power Plant, the difference lies in the mode of heat
generation. While conventional power generation derives its heat source from the
burning of fossil fuels, CSP uses radiant energy from the sun. In essence,
Concentrated Solar Power generates electricity on the principles of Rankine Cycle
Power Plant (coal, gas or oil fired) or as an add- on to a natural gas combined cycle,
substituting the heat source with solar collectors (EEL and MRCL, 1999).
8
Comparatively, CSP is a new technology with a lot of promise and there is
on- going research to make it cost - competitive. Researchers have observed that
improved operations, mass production, economics of scale coupled with state -of -
the art technology would make the reduction of the cost of solar electricity a reality
(Frimpong, 2010).
The innovative aspect of CSP is that they can be equipped with a thermal
storage in which excess heat is diverted to storage material such as molten salts.
After sunset the molten salt is used as heat transfer fluid for the system. Thermal
storage ensures that the turbine can always run at full load and with optimal
efficiency, which in turn makes the power plant more profitable. This significantly
increases the CSP capacity factor compared with solar photo voltaic and, more
importantly, enables the production of dispatchable electricity, which can facilitate
both grid integration and economic competitiveness. CSP technologies therefore
benefit from advances in solar concentrator and thermal storage technologies, while
other components of the CSP plants are based on rather mature technologies and
cannot expect to see rapid cost reductions (www.irena.org).
CSP systems are ideal for grid connection, although small off-grid systems
can be designed; they are the best suited solar technology that is capable of
providing utility scale electricity and are usually used to provide base load power
where they exist (Habib, et al, 2012).
There are different CSP technologies based on focus type (line and point
focus) and receiver type (fixed and mobile). Thus, there is line focus fixed receiver,
line focus mobile receiver, point focus fixed receiver and point focus mobile
receiver. The various types of technologies in use are: Parabolic Trough, Solar
Power Tower/ Central Receiver, Dish Stirling/Parabolic Dish, and Linear Fresnel
Reflector CSP. These various system designs can be distinguished by how the solar
collectors concentrate the sun's radiation and track its position (Frimpong, 2010).
2.1.1 PARABOLIC TROUGH COLLECTOR
The parabolic trough collectors (PTC) consist of solar collectors (mirrors),
heat receivers and support structures. The parabolic -shaped mirrors are constructed
by forming a sheet of reflective material in to a parabolic shape that concentrates
inc
arra
of
col
and
(Ke
but
con
abo
trac
con
coa
col
sec
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ays of mirro
5 m to 6
llectors and
d track the s
earney and
Fig 2.1
2.1.2 L
Linear
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ncentrate th
ove the prim
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ncentrated o
ated absorb
llectors is d
condary refl
light on to a
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sun as it mo
ESTELA, 2
1: Parabolic
LINEAR FR
Fresnel co
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he sunlight
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Trough Co
RESNEL C
ollectors (LF
flat, or sligh
on either s
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optimised
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9
ceiver tube
(100 m) lo
acking mech
d the sun. P
East to West
ollector
COLLECT
FCs) are si
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side of a fix
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individually
. The recei
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ism. This r
rays missin
at the focal
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PTC are usu
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TOR
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iver consist
collectors,
requires a m
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, with the c
used to ori
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arabolic trou
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The
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outh
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etres
axis
ways
ely-
snel
e (a
ubes
10
forming a multi-tube receiver that is wide enough to capture most of the focused
sunlight without a secondary reflector (IRENA, 2012).
Fig 2.2: Linear Fresnel Collector
Source: Adapted from Andreas et al, 2013
2.1.3 PARABOLIC DISH COLLECTOR
Parabolic dishes concentrate the sun's rays onto a receiver positioned at a
focal point propped above the center of the dish. The entire apparatus tracks the sun,
with the dish and receiver moving in tandem. Most dishes have an independent
engine or generator (such as a Stirling machine or a micro turbine) at the focal
point. Dishes offer the highest solar-to-electric conversion performance of any CSP
system. Several features; the compact size, absence of cooling water, and low
compatibility with thermal storage and hybridisation put parabolic dishes in
competition with PV modules, especially concentrating photovoltaic (CPV), as
much as with other CSP technologies. Very large dishes, which have been proven
compatible to thermal storage and fuel backup, are the exception (OECD and IEA,
2010).
The working fluid in the receiver of parabolic dishes is heated to 250700 °C
(4821292 °F)) and then used by a Stirling engine to generate power. Parabolic-dish
systems provide high solar-to-electric efficiency (between 3132%), and their
modular nature provides scalability (Christopher and Goswani, 2005).
trac
tow
wo
as a
Fig 2.3
2.1.4 S
A sola
cking reflec
wer; the rec
orking fluid
a heat sourc
3: Stirling/P
SOLAR TO
ar tower, als
ctors (helios
ceiver conta
in the recei
ce for a pow
Parabolic Di
OWER COL
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11
ish Collecto
LLECTOR
entral recei
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or
R
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consist of s
21832 °F))
ystem.
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The
used
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