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scientific reports, research articles and the books of the leading native and foreign psychologists,
educational specialists referred to the process of reading.
The subject of the study is effective reading methods.
The objective of the research is to study effective teaching reading methods and their application s
in form six.
The tasks of the research are as follows:
1.
Study psychological and methodological literature related to the research topic.
2.
Discover causes and effects of motivation.
3.
Analyse different reading methods and their effectiveness.
4.
Use reading methods practically.
The research methods are as follows:
1.
A study and an analysis of the related literature and school documentation.
2.
Manipulation of data
Hypothesis:
1. Implementation of various, effective reading methods improves students` reading abilities.
3
CHAPTER 1
At the age of 11 or 12 many pupils reach the so-called the stage of concrete operations (6-
12 years). The psychologist James W. Kalat (16; 375) says that about at the age of seven children
enter the stage of concrete operations and begin to understand the conversation about physical
properties.
During these years cognitive development is very intensive. But James W. Kalat (16; 375)
adds that at the stage of concrete operations, children can perform mental operations on concrete
objects but still have trouble with abstract or hypothetical ideas. Children are usually very flexible
at this age. The psychologist Lisa Oakley (18; 29) accentuates that the failure to complete complex
tasks was due to the memory, failure-children were not able to remember what solutions they had
tried. (see figure 1.1.)
Figure 1.1 Information storage (36; 63)
James W. Kalat (22; 375) adds that the children do not reach the stage of formal operations
more suddenly than they reach the concrete operations stage. Nevertheless some children show
evidences of the formal operation stage in the form six. But professor Eysenck (22; 531)
accentuates that initially Piaget argued that formal operation stage starts at the age of 11 or 12, but
later he and other researches found out that most children of this age showed very little evidence of
formal operations. The American psychologist Dennis M. McInerney (6; 137) concludes that recent
studies indicate, however, that some of these ages need to be revised downwards. According to
Piaget (16; 375) children reach the formal operations stage at about the age of 11. "But later
researchers found that many people take longer to reach this stage and some never reach it". This is
100%
50%
0
1 2 3 4 5...31 days
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what the psychologist James W. Kalat said about such an ambiguous border between the concrete
and
formal
stages.
(16;
375)
Children usually spend much time thinking about and sorting through their experiences
from school and sometimes they may seem serious. Linda Goldman (9; 7) says that during the
formal operation stage a child is very curious about the concepts of death, and he or she seeks new
realistic information. Cognitive development occurs in individual's cognitive structures, abilities
and processes. Pupils are different at this age, but at the same time they have similarities. (see
figure 1.2) Professor Pipere (24; 70) argues that age, aptitude, cognitive style, motivation, and
personality are general factors, which are characteristic of all learners. Nevertheless some general
factors are likely to change during the course of foreign language acquisition. Demands are high at
basic school. Basic-school-age children's cognitive features must be taken into consideration.
Professor Thomas P. Rohlen (32; 174) says that it is impossible to redouble children's attention if
the lesson is repetitious and uninteresting, adding that teachers should present interesting problems;
they pose numerous questions they probe and guide. According to this James W. Kalat (16; 375)
says that children develop mental processes that deal with abstract, hypothetical situations and
those processes demand logical, deductive reasoning and systematic planning.
Figure 1.2 Brain's development (35; 99)
Grams
1400
1300
1200
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
years
5
It is acknowledged that the Swiss biologist and psychologist Jean Piaget was the pioneer of
cognitive development theory. The succeeding generations of educators built their theories upon
the facts discovered by him. The great majority of western psychologists and educational
specialists acknowledge Piaget`s authority. This important theory was created by him in the last
century! And only recently some researches have doubted his theory but nevertheless Piaget's
influence on education is deep and pervasive. He championed a way of thinking about children that
provided the foundation for today's education psychology. The Piaget opponents` the only one
demerit against his theory is the age when children reach a particular stage. But that's no wonder
because children have been accelerating rapidly for the past twenty years. The main difference
between the concrete operator and the formal operator is the latter's ability to think abstractly.
SUBCHAPTER 1.1
Motivation is very significant. Timothy V. Rasinski (33 ;1) saying about the importance of
motivation to read adds that motivation to read must be an essential goal in reading instruction
programs for the 21-st century. There are various definitions of motivation but generally, they do
not differ in meaning. The researcher Yasmin.B.Kafai (8; 443) defines motivation as the state of
mind that initiates, directs, and sustains a certain activity. Usually the better motivated students
have more chances to become skilled readers. Yasmin.B.Kafai (8; 443) adds that recent studies on
literacy development show that reading motivation is a crucial factor for successful reading
comprehension. But Skrinda (24; 72) holds the converse opinion stressing that it does not mean
that better motivated learners will necessarily be more successful, but that on average they are
more
likely
to
be
so.
Very often motivation to read means whether the text topic is interesting for children or not.
It is natural that a more interesting text is going to be more motivating to read. As factors which
reduce motivation to read Michael Pressley (21; 372) mentions difficult words in text, too
complicated stories. James Hoffman (11; 61) says that most young children approach books
eagerly because the pictures are appealing and joint books reading is usually an enjoyable social
interaction. The philologist Skrinda (24; 70) accentuates that motivation and needs have always
had a central place in theories of foreign language acquisition. Motivating students to read the text
is something teachers need to begin to do before reading.
There are a lot of factors which form and develop motivation to read. It is not compulsory
to use only course books. The researcher Paul Davies (23; 95) says that learners themselves can
buy a different book each and build up a class library. It gives pupils the opportunity to choose
6
reading material by themselves. That is why the reading expert Rona F. Filipo (28; 137) says that
motivation for reading is promoted when teachers supported students' choice of learning tasks and
involvement in decision making about learning activities.
Prior to a reading activity a teacher should choose an "observation point". To get students
interested Dr. Robert D. Postman (26; 332) recommends teachers to stand where he or she can, see
the entire class, ask questions to the whole class and then call on individuals for a response and
gain attention trough the eye contact or a gesture. During the course of reading a teacher is looking
to the process. It's very significant for teachers not to forget to laud pupils in case of their progress.
An educational specialist Michael Pressley (21; 372) says that being recognized as a good reader
can affect motivation to read, being a better reader than others can motivate reading and working at
becoming an even better reader. During the lesson a teacher should use various approaches, tasks to
keep pupils` interest. Naturally it is a hard work and a teacher must be well-prepared for it.
Professor Rohlen (32; 174) says that teachers in Japan, knowing that children benefit from different
teaching techniques, change their approach several times during every class period.
Some teachers can not permanently motivate pupils. It is obvious that parents` involvement
in home reading improves reading skills. "But reading is something they can do at home, and you
should encourage this as much as possible". This is what the researcher Paul Davies recommends
teachers in order to involve pupils` parents in reading. (23; 95) "The analysis of different forms of
cooperation showed that at schools where more parents` meetings and discussions about a child's
improvement were held together with the child, students` academic success was on average higher
than in other schools". This is how the educator of Tallinn Pedagogical University Lukk describes
interaction between parents and their children. (5; 96) The associate professor of teacher
development Timothy V. Rasinski (33; 1) recognizes the importance of home-school connections,
especially for the development of engaged and enthusiastic readers. The additional reading at home
stimulates motivation, but the home-reading should not be a punishment for a child. Timothy V.
Rasinski (33; 1) concludes that when the home is involved, both reading achievement and
children's love for reading increase. Motivation is a very complex process depending on many
factors which should be taken into account. James V. Hoffman (11; 62) believes that the motivation
to read is the result of a complex interaction among child's history and abilities, the features of the
text, the purpose for reading, the social conditions and support surrounding the activity. Every
teacher should remember what affects reading motivation. Yasmin. B. Kafai (8; 443) says that
many factors influence student's reading motivation including self-efficacy, outcome expectations,
goals, value beliefs regarding to reading and interests in topics. Every teacher must realize the need
7
for motivating students. The educational researcher Yasmin.B.Kafai (8; 443) says that in actual
classroom settings, however, teachers` perception has also been used as a major source for
accessing students' motivation for reading.
If a teacher was able to motivate students, they would certainly achieve high results in
reading comprehension. An educational specialist Jane Braunger (12; 72) says that a motivated
individual initiates and continues a particular activity, returning to a task with sustained
engagement, even when it becomes difficult. Parents usually have much influence with their
children and this factor must be used by teachers. The associate professor of teacher development
Timothy V. Rasinski (33; 1) reminds that reading achievement is highly correlated with the amount
of time spent out of school on reading. The author of the paper thinks that motivation is one of the
leading factors providing successful reading in English but not the only one. The motivated readers
achieve high results in reading. Teachers cannot permanently motivate pupils. At the same time
teachers must cooperate with learners` parents and encourage them to motivate their children.
To encourage an interest in reading, one of the best things a teacher can do is share his or
her own love of reading with students. A teacher should talk about books that he or she read in
childhood. A teacher can also find out what books his or her students read for pleasure. It is
important to send the message to students that a teacher values and enjoys reading. A teacher
should encourage students to find answers to their own questions by reading texts. Sometimes it is
important to use books which include stories, bright pictures, because at this age children like
bright pictures and heroes on the pages.
8
CHAPTER 2
Reading came to life later than speaking or writing. The psychologist Keith Rayner (17; 36)
says that in contrast, writing is a relatively recent human activity and the ability to read and write
was not produced by biological change but by cultural change. The educational consultant Dr.
David Sousa (3; 205) says that it is not easy to master reading because there is no reason to
consider reading to be a natural ability like speaking.
The researcher Paul Davies (23; 100) says that reading has much in common with listening
but the text is permanent which may make it easier to understand. Various specialists give different
descriptions of reading. For example, Widdowson (1; 192) says that reading is not a reaction to a
text but an interaction between a writer and a reader mediated trough a text. Another professor of
Education Christopher Brumfit
(1; 192) considers reading as an ability to interact with a text by
decoding the language and comprehending the concepts presented. And finally the psychologist
Keith Rayner (17; 23) says that reading is the ability to extract visual information from the page
and comprehend the meaning of the text. The essential idea presented by all these specialists is that
reading is the interaction between a writer and a reader. Nevertheless, readers do not master the
effective reading techniques at once.
As stated above, reading has much in common with listening but nevertheless reading is
used together with other skills. A linguistic specialist Coreen Sears (2; 165) says that a variety of
authentic literature is used in the teaching of reading, associated with extension activities that
require students` responses in speech and writing, and the performance of meaningful tasks. While
reading a text, it does not necessarily mean that the reader is focusing attention on a particular word
or letter. Researches describe this process very exceptionally. The psychologist Keith Rayner (17;
181) states that the amount of information that could be possessed on a fixation is shown to be
fixated word plus some additional information to the right of it. Keith Rayner (17; 181) adds that
fluent reading is based on generating guesses or hypothesis about what the next word is. (see figure
2.1)
It is necessary to concentrate one's attention only on reading process. The psychologist
Keith Rayner (17; 195) says that if the reader's speech tract is somehow concurrently engaged
during reading, he or she will not be able to subvocalize the text material.
9
Memory of what has been read so far
Expectations and relevant ideas Reading comprehension Prediction of what is
coming next.
Recognition of meaningful segments of text and text structure
Figure 2.1 The functioning of the fluent reading (23; 91)
Pupils can read aloud or silently, depending on the purpose of reading. Both the types have
their advantages and disadvantages. "One advantage of having subjects read aloud is that one
potentially has a record of what has been processed. This is one can see whether the reader is
making mistakes and can also determine what mistakes are being made". This is how the
psychologist Keith Rayner sums up the advantages of reading aloud. (17; 180) The home education
consultant Jessie Wise (13; 359) says that having a child read aloud increases his vocabulary,
expands his general knowledge and forces him to figure out new words, and it also allows teachers
to correct errors before they become habits. The psychologist Keith Rayner (17; 180) adds that
another obvious method for studying reading "on-line" is to have people read aloud and record
their vocal output, so that both its accuracy and the time course of the vocal output can be analysed.
The inner speech should be activated because it provides comprehension of a text while reading
silently. The psychologist Keith Rayner (17; 216) says that inner speech serves a useful function in
reading comprehension. Keith Rayner (17; 181) also adds that reading aloud is only about half the
speed of silent reading. "When we read silently, we often experience the feeling of hearing our
voice saying the words our eyes are falling down. Some readers actually move their lips at times
during silent reading and there is a considerable amount of muscle activity in the speech tract".
This is how the psychologist Keith Rayner describes silent reading. (17; 188). Nevertheless,
Kleiman (17; 196) argues that the meaning of individual words can be obtained without reference
to inner speech. No matter what reading methods are used, a frequent reading practice must take
place, otherwise much will be forgotten. The educational consultant Dr. David Sousa (3; 60)
mentions that reading practice increases familiarity with the patterns of letters that form printed
word, thereby improving spelling, improves comprehension, grammatical functions and
pronunciation.
10
As far as possible, teachers should also use literary texts. The professor of Education
Christopher Brumfit
(1; 191) says that the English language teachers` main goal is to teach the
grammar of the language, literature due to its structural complexity and its unique use of language.
Another supporter of using literary texts Povey (1; 191) argues that literature increases all language
skills, because literature extends linguistic knowledge by giving evidence of extensive and subtle
vocabulary usage. Nevertheless, Christopher Brumfit (1; 192) says that the critics of the use of
literature maintain to a great extent that literary texts reflect a particular cultural perspective; they
may be difficult for students to read.
A reader interacts with a text to create its meaning. This is the effective reading. For
example, A mother asked her son whether the book was entertaining or not. The son answered that
he did not know. The mother asked him why he was lying to her. She said she heard that the son
was reading aloud! The son answered that he was really reading it but he did not listen to himself.
A reader must not be somehow concurrently engaged during reading. Even the chewing of a
chewing-gum decreases reading comprehension.
On the whole, effective reading materials should contain literary texts. But they must be
used in accordance with pupils` knowledge and needs. It is necessary to take a text seriously as all
the instruction how to read and what to read. All the efforts will be in vain if a text does not
entertain pupils. Pupils should read various texts in order to recognize the different text types and
to prepare for an uncomplicated sentence structure, high-frequency vocabulary. Teachers should be
patient, because full reading comprehension requires more knowledge of the language and higher
level of reading skills.
SUBCHAPTER 2.1
The scientifically- based methods often guarantee successful instructions. The educational
consultant Dr. David Sousa (3; 141) says that the students receiving instruction in scientifically-
based programs demonstrate rapid growth in reading achievement. Two main methods are used in
order to teach pupils basics of reading. The psychologist Keith Rayner (17; 348) says that these two
primary methods used to teach children to read are whole word (or look-say) instruction and
phonics instruction. The proponents of the look- say method consider it to be the leading one.
Professor Michael Pressley (21; 154) adds that the look-say approach emphasizes students learning
words as wholes rather than learning to decode via phonics. The educational professor Susan B.
Neuman (31; 59) says that memorizing whole words may lead to rapid progress in early reading,
particularly for children with good visual memories because some words encountered in early
11
reading (such as could, the) have an irregular pattern of letter-sound mapping that requires whole
word memorization. The Chief Scientist of Soliloquy doctor Marilyn Jager Adams (20; 38) says
that children who were trained through the look-say method demonstrated an early advantage in
rate and comprehension of silent reading and perhaps in interest, fluency, and expression as well.
On the other hand, Susan B. Neuman (31; 59) concludes that whole-word memorization can
initially jump start reading development, but relying on this approach may be problematic for long-
term reading development. This method is usually appropriate for children with good visual
memories. "Pictures are often used to associate letters with sounds. The child will see the letter a,
then a picture of an apple. Learning a key picture is an extra mental step; children will easily go
from seeing the symbol to saying the sound for which it stands". This is what the home education
consultant Jessie Wise sums up about key pictures. (13; 358) The look and say method must be
used; however, this is not the only way. The researcher Judith Orasanu (15; 1) says that the look-
say method's role today is to aid in recognizing irregularly spelled words, while the alphabetic and
phonetic aspects of the language remain dominant. Some researchers recognize the dominance of
the phonics instruction.
The educational consultant Dr. David Sousa (3; 74) says that phonics instruction teaches the
relationships between phonemes of the spoken language and the graphemes of the written language
and how to use these relationships to read and write words. Marilyn Jager Adams (20; 38) says that
children who were taught phonics, exhibited the early advantage of word recognition, particularly
in untaught words, and maintained it throughout. Nonetheless David Sousa (3; 74) says that
phonics instruction teaches children a system for remembering how to read words. Western
researchers like Marilyn Jager Adams (20; 38) say that the programs that included systematic
phonics resulted in significantly better word recognition, better spelling, better vocabulary, and
better reading comprehension at least trough the first grade. The home education consultant Jessie
Wise (13; 358) reminds that basic phonics sounds must be learnt. All that means, that the phonics
instructions must be taught. David Sousa (3; 74) says that phonics instruction that is systematic
and explicit makes a bigger contribution to a child's growth in reading than little or no phonics
instruction, and it contributes to comprehension skills rather than inhibiting them. As well as the
look and say method, the phonic instruction has its disadvantages. David Sousa (3; 74) says that
some critics of phonics say that English spellings are too irregular for phonics instruction to be of
any value, adding that phonics instruction beyond grade 6 is not generally productive for most
students. Both the methods should be used. The educational consultant Dr. David Sousa (3; 142)
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- , 2014, How to teach reading to the Net Generation Children: How to teach reading for those who do not want to read, Hamburg, Bedey Media GmbH, https://www.anchor-publishing.com/document/312690
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