Shopping cart
0 Items | US$ 0.00
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The population of the world is exploding ! This is attributed to the advancement
made by science in various fields. The entire population needs to be fed. This feed is
derived from the land. The process of agricultural modernization has been an important
contributing factor towards this. Modern agriculture utilizes necessary inputs of
fertilizers, pesticides and labour. Production has been improved through these modern
technologies. This has led to adverse environmental impacts. Some of them are enlisted
below :
Overuse of natural resources: It leads to
depletion of groundwater,
loss of forests and wild habitats,
decline in the capacity to absorb water,
waterlogging and increased salinity.
Contamination of the atmosphere:
by ammonia, nitrous oxide, methane and the products of burning or
by the spraying of pesticides and insecticides
It leads to
ozone depletion,
global warming and
atmospheric pollution
Contamination of food and fodder: by residues of pesticides and antibiotics.
Contamination of water: It is caused by pesticides, nitrates, etc. and leads to
wildlife damage,
disruption of ecosystems and
possible health problems in drinking water.
Resistance to pesticides: in pests and diseases including herbicide resistance in weeds.
1
Loss of genetic diversity: causing the displacement of traditional varieties and breeds.
One needs to use some better alternatives to sort out this situation.
Vermicomposting seems to be an excellent replacement of these chemical fertilizers.
Vermicompost is an odorless and clean organic material containing adequate quantities
of N, P, K and several essential micronutrients. It is eco-friendly, non-toxic, consumes
low energy input for composting and is a recycled biological product. The left over
organic matter are decomposed to yield the precious vermicompost.
Vermicompost is an organic manure (bio-fertilizer) produced as the vermicast by earth
worm feeding on biological waste material.
Vermicomposting is a process in which worms are used to convert organic materials
usually wastes into a humus-like material known as vermicompost. The main purpose is
to process the material as quickly and efficiently as possible.
Vermiculture is the culture of earthworms to continually increase the number of worms
in order to obtain a sustainable harvest. These worms are used
to expand a vermicomposting operation or
to sell it to the customers.
DEFINITION OF VERMICOMPOSTING
Vermicomposting can be defined as an aerobic non-thermophilic bio-oxidation process
of organic waste decomposition which depends on earthworms.
FEATURES OF VERMICOMPOSTING
·
Natural
·
Free from chemicals
·
Eco-friendly
·
Non-toxic
·
Utilizes garbage
·
Low energy input
·
Easy to maintain
2
·
Little or no odour
·
Rich in nutrients
·
Excellent for the growth of plants
Used In :
·
Farms
·
Agriculture
·
Gardens
HISTORY
Composting has been used by farmers and gardeners since prehistoric times to
recycle wastes into products that are capable of boosting plant growth. The word
composting originated from Latin words com = together and post = to bring.
Decomposting or vermicomposting has been known from the very beginning. The
Egyptians were one of the first cultures to recognize the soil amending properties of the
earthworm. Worms have been observed by such scholars as Aristotle and Charles
Darwin as organisms that decompose organic matter into rich humus or compost.
Charles Darwin, the English naturalist conducted a comprehensive study of
burrowing earthworms. In 1881, he published his last book "The Formation of Vegetable
Mould, Through the Action of Worms, With Observations of their Habits". This book
reports the feeding behaviour of these organisms and conversion of the organic matter
castings which favor plant growth.
Vermiculture was started in the 1950s in the United States for the production of
fish baits. Vermicompost was produced in United States and United Kingdom from
organic wastes by using earthworms in the 1980s. The publication of the "Proceedings of
a Workshop on the Role of Earthworms in the Stabilization of Organic Residues" in
1981, 100 years after Darwin's study, is responsible for increasing vermicomposting
within and outside of the United States. The research on vermiculture was carried out by
Roy Hartenstein in the US and and Clive A. Edwards in the U.K. 1980s. Commercial
vermicomposting projects have been developed in many countries such as England,
France, the Netherlands, Germany, Italy, Spain, Poland, the United States, Cuba,
3
Mexico, the Bahamas, China, Japan, Philippines, India and elsewhere in Southeast Asia,
as well as Australia, New Zealand, American Samoa, Hawaii, and many countries in
South America.
The first Vermitechnology Unlimited worm farm was constructed on a five acre
parcel with very large oaks and some pines scattered in. It was built to utilize the natural
shade rather than clear cut and then put up artificial shade or a green house operation.
This farm has a total of 3,000 linear feet of worm beds which averaged 3100 lbs. of
worms being produced each month.
The production of vermicompost and vermimeal started in 1979 in Philippines.
The International Symposium-Workshop on Vermi Technologies for Developing
Countries was held in the Philippines in 2005.
In 1972, Mary Appelhof, Michigan biology teacher first started home
vermicomposting. She is also known as the mother of modern day vermiculture. A 2009
article in the New York Times, "Urban Composting: A New Can of Worms," made
many more American readers aware of the potential for even apartment dwellers to try
vermicomposting.
·
Vermicomposting centers are numerous in Cuba. When the Soviet Union fell, it
became impossible for them to import commercial fertilizer. Vermicompost has
been the largest single replacement for commercial fertilizer by Cuba.
In 2004, an estimated 1 million tons of vermicompost were produced on the
island.
·
In India, and estimated 200,000 farmers practice vermicomposting and one
network of 10,000 farmers produce 50,000 metric tons of vermicompost every
month.
·
Farmers in Australia and the West Coast of the U.S. are starting to use
vermicompost in greater quantities, fuelling the development of vermicomposting
industries there.
4
·
Scientists at several Universities in the U.S., Canada, India, Australia, and South
Africa are documenting the benefits of vermicompost, providing facts and figures
that support the observations of those who have used it.
TYPES OF COMPOSTING
Composting is biological conversion of organic matter into humus-like material
called compost by heterotrophic microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes
and protozoa. The process occurs naturally. Right organisms, feed material, moisture,
aerobic conditions and nutrients are needed for microbial growth. At optimum
conditions, the composting process can occur at a much faster rate.
According To Its Nature
Aerobic composting: - It stands for composting in the presence of air. Organic waste
are broken down quickly and is not prone to smell. It requires high maintenance as it
needs to be turned on a regular basis to keep air in the system and temperatures up. It is
also likely to require accurate moisture monitoring. This type of compost is good for
large volumes of compost.
Anaerobic composting: - It stands for composting in the absence of air. Anaerobic
composting requires low maintenance as waste is simply throw in a pile. It is a slow
process. It may take years to break down. Anaerobic composting produces awful smell.
The bacteria break down the organic materials into harmful compounds like ammonia
and methane.
Vermicomposting: - Composting is carried out by red worms including bacteria, fungi,
insects and other bugs. The broken organic materials are utilized by the others to eat. Red
worms eat the bacteria, fungi and the food waste and then deposit their castings. Oxygen
and moisture are required for healthy composting. It requires medium level maintenance.
One needs to feed the red worms and monitor the conditions.
According To Its Use
Industrial systems: - Industrial composting systems are popularising these days as an
alternative to landfills. Untreated waste breaks down anaerobically in a landfill,
5
producing methane gas and adds to greenhouse effect. It aims at treating biodegradable
waste before it enters a landfill to harm.
Agriculture: - Windrow composting is used in agriculture. It is the production of
compost by piling organic matter or biodegradable waste such as animal manure and
crop residues, in long rows (windrows). This method is appropriate for producing larger
volumes of compost. These rows are generally turned to improve porosity and oxygen
content, mix in or remove moisture and redistribute cooler and hotter portions of the pile.
Windrow composting is commonly used for farm scale composting.
Home: - Home composting is the simplest way to compost. At home, composting is
generally done by using composting bins or in the form of pile composting. Other
methods include trench composting and sheet composting. It is a small scale process and
requires less outlay of capital and labour.
The World is Catching On
Vermicomposting is being adapted globally, especially in the warmer climates.
India and Cuba are among the leaders.
· Cuba
When the Soviet Union fell, it became impossible for them to import commercial
fertilizer. Vermicompost has been the largest single replacement for commercial
fertilizer by Cuba. In 2004, about 1 million ton of vermicompost was produced
on the island.
· India
About 200,000 farmers practice vermicomposting and a network of 10,000
farmers produce 50,000 metric tons of vermicompost every month.
· Farmers in Australia and the West Coast of the U.S. are also starting to use
vermicompost in greater quantities.
·
Scientists at several Universities in the U.S., Canada, India, Australia, and South
Africa are documenting the benefits of vermicompost, providing facts and figures
that support the observations of those who have used it.
6
VERMICOMPOST PRODUCTION AND ITS ECONOMICS
Mitchell and Edwards (1997) studied production Eosinea fetida of vermicompost
from feed-lot cattle manure. Significant reductions in total mass of cattle manure were
obtained by the activity of earthworms. The process yielded two products: residual
vermicompost, and an increase in earthworm biomass. The most successful mode of
manure application was found to be surface (vertical) application which resulted in a
reduction of 30% of the initial manure (dry) mass and the production of live earthworms
to 4.9% of the initial manure mass (dry weight). The increase in earthworm biomass
represented extraction of 7, 18, 7 and 2% of initial total C, N, S and P respectively from
the manure.
Sunitha et al. (1997) attempted evaluation of methods of vermicomposting under
open field conditions. It was aimed to evaluate methods of vermicomposting under open
field conditions. The heap system was found to be better than the pit method for
biodegradation of wastes. The heap recorded higher population growth with a 20.37 -
20.86 fold increase in Eudrilus eugeniae.
Atiyeh et al. (2000) studied the effects of vermicomposts and composts on plant
growth in horticultural container media and soil. The results
showed that vermicomposts
have the potential for improving plant growth when added to greenhouse container
media or soil. However, there seem to be distinct differences
between specific
vermicomposts and composts in terms of their nutrient contents, the nature of their
microbial communities, and their effects on plant growth.
Biradar et al. (2000) analysed the influence of seasons on the biomass of Eudrilus
eugeniae and vermicompost production at the Regional Research Station, Bijapur,
Karnataka, during 1995-98. The results of the study showed that the rainy season was
more congenial for earthworm multiplication and vermicompost production than either
winter or summer.
Giraddi (2000) studied the influence of vermicomposting methods and season on
the biodegradation of organic wastes. An experiment was conducted during 1997-98 at
Dharwad, to study the effect of vermicomposting and season on the biodegradation of
organic wastes. The biodegradation was quite efficient during rainy and winter
7
composting as compared to summer composting. This is indicated by higher
vermicompost production and lower amounts of undegraded wastes in rainy and winter
composting than in summer composting.
Jeyabal and Kuppuswamy (2001) investigated on the recycling of agricultural
and agro-industrial wastes for the production of vermicompost. Its response was studied
in a rice-legume (black gram) cropping system during 1994-96 in Tamil Nadu, India.
The study showed that bio-digested slurry and weeds was found to be an ideal
combination for vermicomposting considering the nutrient content and compost maturity
period. The integrated application of vermicompost, fertilizer N and bio-fertilizers
increased rice yield by 15.9% over application with fertilizer N alone.
Anonymous (2004) studied the market driven eco-enterprises for livelihood
security. Based on the economic viability, these enterprises included production of a
biological control agent, bio-fungicide, vermicompost, bio-fertilizers, food processing,
mushroom culture, ornamental fish breeding, production of handmade paper and boards
from crop wastes.
Garcia-Gil et al. (2000) and Bulluck et al. (2002) reported that compost produces
significantly greater increases in soil organic carbon and some plant nutrients as
compared to comparison with mineral fertilizers.
Dominguez (2004) stated that vermicompost is a stabilized, finely divided peat-
like material with a low C:N ratio, high porosity and high water-holding capacity, in
which most nutrients are present in forms that are readily taken up by plants.
Barik et al. (2005) studied the effect of different farm wastes on
vermicomposting. Various crop residues such as paddy straw, vegetable waste, gliricidia
leaves, rice bran, wheat bran, green gram haul, and gober gas slurry and groundnut
haulm were mixed with cow dung and were used as substrates for vermicomposting. The
production of vermicompost was maximum with the groundnut haulm treatment
(2.5kgs). This was at par with having gliricidia leaves and green gram halum.
Costa et al. (2005) evaluated composting process through diary temperature
monitoring of piles composed of wastes from the cotton carding industry and with 3
8
kinds of inoculums. The results showed that the rumen as inoculum presented high
temperature values in the initial phase and low values in the final phase although the
stabilization occurred at the same time. The system with aeration allowed faster material
stabilization as compared to the system without aeration. The intensification of turnings
in the second phase decreased the composting time and reduced the final volume by
46%. The vermicomposts showed higher nutrient content as compared to the other
composts produced.
Reddy et al. (2006) conducted a study in Tiptur taluk of Tumkur district,
Karnataka to workout economics of vermicompost use in coconut with a sample size of
40 vermicompost (VC) user farmers and 20 non-vermicompost user farmers. In general,
VC users incurred lower expenditure on inputs especially on fertilizer and plant
protection chemicals. The variable vermicompost, though not statistically significant,
had positive association with the copra output. The application of VC to coconut farms
resulted in many environmental benefits such as reduction in fertilizer use, plant
protection chemicals and number of irrigations given to the crop.
Chinnappa Reddy et al. (2007) analyzed economics of vermicompost production
and economic gains from its application to the crops like, banana, coconut, coffee, and
pepper. The study was carried out in Coorg, Mysore, Hassan, Kolar, Mandya, Tumkur
and Bangalore districts. The study focused on two types of vermicompost production,
viz., vat method and heap method with regard to the vermicompost production.
Ramamurthy et al. (2007) in their study conducted near Nagpur in Maharashtra
reported that vermicompost application would improve the yield of citrus by 21 %, with
B: C ratio of 3.21. The adoption of vermicompost application increased from 3 per cent
to 28 per cent over five years. The rate of return of vermicompost worked out to be 2.92.
Weber et al. (2007) reported that the results of several long-term studies have
shown that the addition of compost improves soil physical properties by decreasing bulk
density and increasing the soil water holding capacity. Long-term beneficial effects of
composted materials are also observed in soil humic substances (due to an increase in the
complexity of their molecular structure, which increases the humic/fulvic acid ratio) as
well as in soil sorption properties.
9
Lazcano et al. (2008) reported that the processing of waste material through
controlled bio-oxidation processes, such as composting, reduces the environmental risk
by transforming the material into a safer and more stable product suitable for application
to soil and also reduces the transportation costs because of the significant reduction in
the water content of the raw organic matter.
Vivas et al. (2009) assessed the impact of composting and vermicomposting on
bacterial community size and structure, and microbial functional diversity of an olive-
mill waste. The aim of this study was to couple biochemical and molecular
methodologies for evaluating the impact of two recycling technologies (composting and
vermicomposting) on a toxic organic waste.
Both the recycling technologies were
effective in activating the microbial parameters of the toxic waste, the vermicomposting
being the best process to produce greater bacterial diversity, greater bacterial numbers
and greater functional diversity. Although several identical populations were detected in
the processed and non-processed materials, each technology modified the original
microbial communities of the waste in a diverse way, indicating the different roles of
each one in the bacterial selection.
In addition to increasing plant growth and productivity, vermicompost may also
increase the nutritional quality of some vegetable crops such as tomatoes (Gutierrez-
Miceli et al., 2007), spinach (Peyvast et al., 2008), strawberries (Singh et al., 2008),
lettuce (Coria-Cayupan et al., 2009) and Chinese cabbage (Wang et al., 2010).
Similarly, some studies show that vermicomposting leachates or vermicompost
water-extracts, used as substrate amendments or foliar sprays, also promote the growth
of tomato plants (Tejada et al. 2008), sorghum (Gutierrez-Miceli et al. 2008), and
strawberries (Singh et al. 2010).
The organic foods industry in the United States has grown dramatically in the
past two decades. Organic foods constitute more than 2% of all food in the U.S. and
organic sales are estimated to have increased by nearly 20% annually since 1990,
reaching $13.8 billion in 2005 (OTA, 2006). U.S. regulations require that organic foods
be grown without synthetic pesticides, growth hormones, antibiotics or genetic
engineering.
10
Organic food sales in the U.S. by food category, 2005, in millions of dollar, from OTA
(2006).
Organic Food Sales in the United States
in Billions of Dollars.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
S
a
le
s i
n
B
illi
o
n
s
o
f D
o
ll
a
rs
Organic Food Sales in the U.S.
1997-2005.
From OTA (2006)
11
Table 1: Summary of recent studies comparing organic and conventional foods with
respect to nutrient levels.
Foods
Chemicals
Studied
Results
Reference
Flavonols, phenolic
acids
Strawberries, blueberries
Organic cultivation had no
consistent effects on
phenolic levels
Hakkinen and
Torronen
(2000)
Vegetable
soups
Salicylic acid
soups had significantly
higher content of salicylic
acid
Baxter and
others (2001)
Qing-gen-cai,
Chinese
cabbage,
spinach, Welsh
onion, green
pepper
Flavonoids
Organic foods generally
had higher levels of
flavonoids
Ren and others
(2001)
Peach, pear
Polyphenoloxidase
enzyme activity,
total phenolics
Organic peaches and pears
had higher phenolic and
polyphenol oxidase levels
Carbonaro and
Mattera (2001)
Black currants
Flavonols
No consistent differences
were noted between
flavonol levels in organic
and conventional black
currants
Mikkonen and
others (2001)
Peach, pear
Polyphenoloxidase
enzyme activity,
total phenolics,
organic acids
Organic peaches and pears
had higher phenolic and
polyphenol oxidase levels,
organic peaches had higher
levels of ascorbic acid and
citric acid
Carbonaro and
others (2002)
Marionberries,
corn,
strawberries
Phenolics and
ascorbic acid
Phenolics and ascorbic
acid higher in organics
than in conventional;
highest levels of phenolics
and ascorbic acid in crops
grown sustainably"
Asami and
others (2003)
Tomatoes
Vitamin C,
carotenoids,
polyphenols
Vitamin C, carotenoids,
and polyphenols than
conventional when results
were expressed as fresh
Caris-Veyrat
and others
(2004)
12
matter
Grapes
Polyphenoloxidase
and diphenolase
enzymes
Polyphenoloxidase enzyme
levels in organic and
conventional grapes did
not differ; diphenolase
activity times higher from
organic grapes than from
conventional grapes
Nunez-
Delicado and
others (2005)
Lettuce,
collards, pac
choi
Phenolics
No difference in phenolic
levels between organic and
conventionally grown
lettuce and collards;
phenolics higher in organic
pac choi
Young and
others (2005)
Apples
Phenolics
Phenolics higher in organic
apple pulp than in
conventional; no
differences between
organic and conventional
apples with respect to
phenolics in apple peels
Veberic and
others (2005)
Source : Organic Foods
13
CHAPTER II
REQUIREMENTS FOR ESTABLISHING A COMMERCIAL
VERMICOMPOST UNIT
LAND
The land required to initiate a vermicompost production unit is about 0.5 1 acre.
About 8 to 10 shacks sized 180-200 sq. ft can be built on it. A piece of land could also be
taken on lease for a period of 10 to 15 years. The location of the vermicompost unit
depends on various factors. Some of them are discussed below:
Objective
Small vermicomposting units are run by the farmers for meeting their own needs.
It is generally observed that their homes are present in the villages and farms and fields
are present away from the villages. Difficulty arises in maintenance if the
vermicomposting units are established away from the home. The capacity of such units is
less hence the organic waste can be brought to the home. Therefore, such units should be
established near the home.
Whereas for the establishment of high capacity production units, the location
should be selected on the basis of transportation facilities for raw material / wastes /
manure, availability of labourer and adequate water supply.
Production capacity
The vermicompost unit should be established keeping in view the Production
capacity of the unit. It can be started with any capacity and its production can be
increased after a short period. The availability of worms is also an important
requirement. The production of a vermicompost unit started with a capacity of 30-50
metric ton per year can be increased upto 250-300 metric ton per year. Addition of extra
worms is also not required. Hence, the location of the vermicompost unit should be
selected keeping in view that the production of the unit could be increased in future.
14
Vermicompost tanks
Raw material / waste / animal dung
The availability of the raw material is very important in the site selection process.
Enough space should be present at the vermicompost unit site to store the raw materials
for about 4 6 month. It is essential to maintain a stock for atleast one cycle.
Source of Water
The Source of Water should be present near the vermicompost unit. It becomes
difficult to transport water from a distant source to the unit. It should also be kept in
mind that the site should be at an altitude so that water logging is not found during rainy
season. The vermicompost site should be well protected from the animals by building
appropriate boundaries.
Shed
The vermicompost unit should be protected from direct sunlight and rain.
Therefore the construction of the shed is highly recommended. The shed should be
constructed on the basis of the production
capacity of the unit. The hight of the unit such
that no difficulty arises in carying out the
various operations under 5the shed. Covering
material, such as staw, cement sheet etc. can be
used for the construction. The unit can be used
without any boundary but it is adviced to protect
the unit from sunlight. The unit should be well
aerated. At least cemented walls of Four feet
height should be constructed around the
vermicompost unit. Such types of walls are strong enough and it is easy to maintain
temperature around such boundaries. It should be ascertained that the length of the shed
should be from east to west.
Floor
While constructing the floor it should be kept in mind that there should not be
any kind of water logging. It could be set even without flooring. But it should also be
15
about six inches above the ground level. Such unit should be treated for termites and
ants. For these chemicals such as aldosulphan dust, chloropyriphos etc. cold be used. It
can also be treated herbally by using Azadirachta indica abstract. Bricks can be used for
flooring. Before preparing the bedding on a cemented floor about 3 inches thick layer of
gravel should be spread. This makes the maintenance of temperature and moisture easier.
Building
An office, warehouses for raw material & finished goods, etc. is also required.
Seed Stock
Worms are required to start vermicomposting operation. It is important to store
worm seeds for future operations.
Roads, Paths & Fencing
The site should have adequate infrastructure with roads for easy movement of
workers, trolleys & wheel barrows to transport the raw materials to the bed & carry out
the finished compost.
Fence
Generally, vermicompost units are not attacked by animals but the site should be
fenced to prevent entry of animals or unwanted elements onto the site.
Water supply, pipe line & tanks
Water is the most important ingredient after
waste and worms. The vermicompost beds have to
be kept moist with about 50% water content. For
the production of 80 100 kg of vermicompost per
day 20 30 L water is required in winter and rainy
season whereas summer season 60 70 L water is
required. It also depends upon the position of
vermicomposting site, sunshine, shed, floating of
the bedding, raw material etc. of the
vermicomposting unit should be done men water source and pipes should be used for
16
water supply from distant sources. If transporting water is difficult then water can be
stored bin small concrete mean the vermicompost site for smaller units and over head
tanks can be used for larger units. Drippers with nonstop water flow would be viable for
continuous water supply and also helps in saving water. This might be costly but reduces
operational costs of manual watering. Sprinkler is the best for watering the
vermicompost units. In case of pipes a sprinkler attachment at the mouth can be used.
Electricity
Electricity is essential for lighting and temperature control, such as fans to cool
the worm beds and heating systems for warmth. Lights are the most effective method for
preventing worms from leaving their bins and it can also be used for harvesting
vermicastings as well as worms.
Machinery
For efficient operation of a vermicompost unit, the following machinery is needed.
Tubs & Trays
They are needed twice in vermicomposting
operation. Once for adding the waste to the unit and
secondly for taking out the finished product. But it may
be required for more than two times. Difference
equipments are required at the different stages of
operation for e.g. for filling the bed, storage, packaging,
etc. The number of tubs & trays to be used depends on
the size of the unit and number of labourers
employment.
Spades and shovels
These are needed to complete the vermicomposting operation Spades are used for
filling the raw materials and taking out the finished products. Wooden or metallic
shovels are also used. If activity of the worms is to be determined it can be done with it.
Hand gloves should also be used.
17
Shredder
It is used to shred or chop the hard and large sized raw material into small pieces
so that it can be easily composted.
Trolleys and wheel barrows
They are used for transportation of waste organic matter, finished products, etc.
to and fro the site for loading & unloading of compost.
Harvester
It is used to separate the worms from their vermicastings. It is an important
process as the worms are very expensive and cannot be packed as such with the
vermicastings without being separated.
18
Machinery for stitching & automatic packing
Vermicastings can be packed in the form of small plastic packets or sacks for
smaller scale operations. Wooden boxes can be used for shipping purposes. So,
machinery is required for stitching & automatic packing of vermicastings.
Transport
Transport is required for shifting raw materials to the site, especially if the source
of the raw materials is far away from the unit. For a unit that produce about 1000 tones
of compost per annum, a truck with the minimum capacity of 3-tonnes is required,
smaller units can use smaller vehicles depending on their production. On-site vehicles,
like trolleys are required to transport the raw material from the warehouses to the
bedding, etc.
OPERATIONAL COSTS
The expenses include
cost of raw materials
fuel & Transport costs
power
Insurance
repair & Maintenance
wages for labourers
staff salaries
Extension Services
The number of staff & workers hired should be according to the need of workers and the
size of the production unit. Manpower should be properly managed and used properly.
19
CHAPTER III
COMPOST WORMS
Worms are used to recycle the organic material into valuable fertilizer called
vermicompost, or worm compost. The most commonly used worm for vermicomposting
is the Red Wiggler (Eisenia foetida, Eisenia fetida or Eisenia andrei). They are also
known as compost worm, manure worm and red worm. It is extremely tough and
adaptable. It is found in almost all parts of the world. There are about 3,000 species of
earthworms globally. Edwards & Lofty, (1972) state that the presence of about 1800
species of earthworms worldwide. The common earthworm Lumbricus rubellus can also
be used for this purpose. The other species used for vermicomposting include:
Eisenia fetida
Eisenia veneta
Eudrilus eugeniae
Eisenia andrei
Eisenia hortensis
Lumbricus terrestris
Perionyx excavates
Amynthas gracilis
Lumbricus rubellus
Desirable attributes of worms suitable for vermicomposting
1.
It should have high biomass consumption rate.
2.
It should also have high growth rate.
3.
It should have wider tolerance range to the environmental factors.
4.
It should have higher adaptability.
5.
It should have higher reproductive rate.
6.
It should have higher population growth rate.
7.
It should show faster composting of organic residues.
8.
It should have mature quickly.
9.
A mixture of species is should be used.
10.
It should be disease resistant.
20
Dendrobaena octaedra
CLASSIFICATION OF EARTHWORMS
Earthworms are often classified based on their activity and feeding type, which
affects their impacts on the soil.
Compost earthworms
These are involved in composting and are mostly
found in a compost bin. They prefer warm and moist
environments. A ready supply of compost raw
material is required. They reproduce very quickly
and are usually bright red in colour and stripy.
Eg: Eisenia veneta, and Eisenia fetida.
Epigeic earthworms
They live on the surface of the soil in leaf litter.
These species have a tendency not to make burrows
but live in and feed on the leaf debris. They are also
bright red or reddy-brown, but they are not stripy.
Eg: Dendrobaena octaedra, Dendrodrilus rubidus,
Eiseniella tetraedra, Heliodrilus oculatus, Lumbricus
rubellus, Lumbricus festivus, Lumbricus friendi,
Lumbricus castaneus, Satchellius mammali, etc.
Endogeic earthworms
They live in and feed on the soil. They make
horizontal burrows through the soil to move around
and to feed. They reuse these burrows to a certain
degree. Endogeic earthworms are often pale
coloured, grey, pale pink, green or blue. Some can
burrow very deeply in the soil.
Eg : Allolobophora chlorotica, Apporectodea
Eisenia fetida
Allolobophora chlorotica
21
caliginosa, Apporectodea rosea, Murchieona muldali, Octolasion cyaneum and
Octolasion tyrtaeum, etc.
Anecic earthworms
They make permanent vertical burrows in soil.
They drag leaves fallen on the soil surface into
their burrows for feeding. They also cast on the
surface. They also make middens (piles of casts)
around the entrance to their burrows. They are
darkly coloured at the head end (red or brown) and
have paler tails.
Eg : Lumbricus terrestris, Apporectodea longa, etc.
Apporectodea longa
22
Eisenia fetida (RED WRIGGLER)
Scientific classification
Kingdom : Animalia
Phylum :
Annelida
Class :
Oligochaeta
Order :
Haplotaxidae
Suborder :
Lumbricina
Superfamily :
Lumbricoidea
Family :
Lumbricidae
Species :
Eisenia
Sub-species : fetida
Common name
Brandling or Tiger worm
Origin
North America, Europe, Middle East, Central Asia to
Japan
Binomial name
Eisenia fetida
Appearance
Colour : Red and white strips along length of the body.
Size : Medium (60-120 mm).
Characteristic Features
They are reddish in colour, with yellowish rings.
Average length is 6 13 cm.
Exudes a fetid smell if handled roughly, fetida means
stinky.
May be easily confused with Eisenia veneta.
Reproduction
It has the shortest lifecycle of all earthworms.
23
High rates of conversion and reproduction.
The young worms hatch 3 weeks after the eggs are
laid.
They are sexually mature within another 9 weeks.
Under perfect conditions:
· the worm population doubles every 3 months (4
generations a year)
· 500 - 600 offspring per worm per year
Cocoons of Eisenia
foetida
Clitellum: light-colored band Produces cocoons
Each cocoons contain ~ 4 eggs
Egg incubation period = 3 weeks
Number of hatchlings may be 2-9 in one cocoon.
Transformation of the
organic material
between half and the whole of the equivalent of its
body mass a day (depending on conditions: climate,
food supply)
under perfect conditions: 3,500 worms (approx. 1
kg) devour 1 kg kitchen waste a day
200 - 300 worms can convert a volume of 1 m² and
20 cm depth into worm humus within 60 days
of 100% source material, 15% is what remains in
the form of worm compost
Use
Most commonly used species for vermicomposting
as fish or poultry feed
In Mexico, the banana worm bread is also baked.
24
Eudrilus eugeniae
Scientific classification
Kingdom : Animalia
Phylum :
Annelida
Class :
Clitellata
Subclass :
Oligochaeta
Order :
Haplotaxida
Family :
Eudrilidae
Genus :
Eudrilus
Species :
eugeniae
Common name
The African night crawler
Origin
Native to tropical west Africa and now widespread in
warm regions
Binomial name
Eudrilus eugeniae
Kinberg, 1867
Appearance
Clour : Uniform purple-grey sheen. The segments of the
brandling worm, Eisenia fetida alternate reddish-
orange and brown. The posterior segments are
evenly tapered to a point and the final segment is
blunt.
Characteristic Features
Fecundity, growth, maturation and biomass production
were all significantly greater at 25°C
Use
Vermicomposting
25
Eisenia veneta
Scientific classification
Kingdom : Animalia
Phylum :
Annelida
Class :
Oligochaeta
Order :
Haplotaxidae
Suborder :
Lumbricina
Superfamily : Lumbricoidea
Family :
Lumbricidae
Species :
Eisenia
Subspecies :
veneta
Common name
N/A
Binomial name
Eisenia veneta
Origin
North America, Europe, Middle East, Central Asia to
Japan
Appearance
Colour : Reddish purple, each segment has a Dark
purple band, alternating with a clear
intersegmental area.
Size : Medium (50-155 mm).
Characteristic Features
It is epigeic
Usually found in garden compost but can also occur
in wet, decaying leaf litter, organic-rich soils and
manure heaps
Use
Vermicomposting
26
Eisenia hortensis (EUROPEAN NIGHTCRAWLER )
Scientific classification
Kingdom :
Animalia
Phylum :
Annelida
Class :
Clitellata
Order :
Haplotaxida
Family :
Lumbricidae
Genus :
Eisenia
Species :
hortensis
Common name
European nightcrawler
Origin
European countries
Binomial name
Eisenia hortensis or Dendrobaena veneta
(Michaelsen, 1890)
Appearance
Colour : Generally pink-grey in color with a banded or
striped appearance. The tip of the tail is often
cream or pale yellow. When the species has not
been feeding, it is pale pink.
Size : Medium-small earthworm averaging about 1.5
grams each when fully grown.
Characteristic Features
The species is usually found in deep woodland litter
and garden soils.
The European nightcrawler is an invasive species that
should only be used in contained compost systems and
not released into wild.
Compared to E. fetida, E. hortensis does best in an
environment with a higher carbon to nitrogen ratio.
This makes it well suited to compost pits high in
fibrous materials commonly known as browns.
Use
Bait worm, but its popularity as a composting worm is
increasing
27
Perionyx excavates
Scientific classification
Kingdom : Animalia
Phylum : Annelida
Class :
Clitellata
Subclass : Oligochaeta
Order :
Haplotaxida
Family :
Megascolecidae
Genus :
Perionyx
Specie : excavatus
Common name
Bues or Indian blues
Origin
North America, Europe, Middle East, Central Asia to
Japan.
Binomial name
Perionyx excavatus
Appearance
Colour : Dark brown in color with strippings.
Characteristic Features
It is a commercially produced Earthworm.
Use
Good for vermicomposting in tropical and subtropical
regions.
28
Excerpt out of 142 pages
- scroll top
Details
- Quote paper
- , 2014, Handbook on Vermicomposting: Requirements, Methods, Advantages and Applications, Hamburg, Bedey Media GmbH, https://www.anchor-publishing.com/document/312735
Comments