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5
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
ince the dawn of civilization, man has tried to find out the answers of some
fundamental questions regarding the existence of man, of this universe and of
supernatural powers. So many views related to the subject spread all over the world.
Idealism, naturalism, pragmatism, realism, hedonism, humanism etc. are the
philosophies and all of them were prominent at a particular time, and they motivated
about whole of the human race. We can see their impact on all sphere of life, as on
social, economic, political, religious, educational, ethical etc. In 20
th
century there is
an emergence of a new philosophical thought, which is named as `existentialism'.
There are numerous ways to analyze the currents of existential thinking. As a
system of philosophy or a school of thought, existentialism is a revolt against
traditional metaphysics. As a theory of human development, it is an approach to
highlight the existence of being the process of becoming. Since a person, in the
becoming state, always exists in a constantly dynamic phase, "his life may be
regarded as a journey on which he finds ever newer experiences and gains greater
insights
[1]
".
Existentialism represents a protest against the rationalism of traditional
philosophy, against misleading notions of the bourgeois culture, and the
dehumanizing values of industrial civilization. Since alienation, loneliness and self-
estrangement constitute threats to human personality in the modern world, existential
thought has viewed as its cardinal concerns a quest for subjective truth, a reaction
against the `negation of Being' and a perennial search for freedom. From the ancient
Greek philosopher, Socrates, to the twentieth century French philosopher, Jean Paul
S
6
Sartre, and other thinkers have dealt with this tragic sense of ontological reality - the
human situation within a comic context.
Existentialism is one of the most important schools of philosophy, developed as
a result of opposition to the methods of traditional western philosophy after the
Second World War. In this philosophy beliefs opposite to the traditional philosophical
thought are found. According to existentialism, the individuality of man is supreme
and this `individuality' is greater and more important than the existence of man, nation
and the world. This philosophy recognizes the existence of individuality, opposing the
notion of intelligence and nature. It is very much near to the individual life of man.
Existentialism is a term applied to the work of a number of philosophers since
the 19th century who, despite large differences in their positions
[2][3]
, generally
focused on the condition of human existence, and an individual's emotions, actions,
responsibilities, and thoughts, or the meaning or purpose of life
[4][5]
.
Existential
philosophers often focused more on what they believe is subjective, such as beliefs
and religion, or human states, feelings, and emotions, such as freedom, pain, guilt, and
regret
,
as opposed to analyzing objective knowledge, language
,
or science.
During the eighteenth century intelligence and nature got too much recognition.
In opposition to this, existentialism came into being. This philosophy opposes modern
industrial and technical age, science, objectivity and non-individualism. According to
existentialism, man becomes a tool in the hands of industrial society, which is not
good. Man should be the master of industrial society and machine should be his slave.
Objectivity and materialism (science) recognize only the external nature of man and
consider him only a part of this physical process.
Existentialism opposes all those one-sided movements which want to exploit
man in the interest of society or group by considering his individuality secondary, no
matter whether this notion pertains to Fascism or Communism or any other thought.
Although existentialism realizes the need of the society, but it does not mean that
society should give secondary place to the individual by exploiting him.
Existentialism considers individuality as supreme, considers society as a means of its
development. Although existentialism is considered similar to logical empiricism, but
7
its attitude and feeling does not concur at all with the nations of modern technical and
industrial age.
The peculiarity and supremacy of existentialism lies in the fact that it believes
in the inner and immediate realization of self-consciousness. There is a basic desire
and inclination for the existence of individuality in man. It should be recognized. If
this existential individuality is recognized, his life becomes purposeful and important.
At the same time he becomes conscious for his `self'.
Existentialism is sometimes referred to as a continental philosophy, referring to
the continental part of Europe, as opposed to that practiced in Britain at that time,
which was called analytic philosophy, and mostly dealt with analyzing language.
Prince Hamlet, a Shakespearean character said, "To be or not to be that is the
question". Such a mood dominates every one, when he feels crestfallen, discomfited,
despaired and disappointed from the frets and fumes of life, while a thoroughly
disgusted, pessimistic and disillusioned man would vote for "Not to Be." The
philosophy of existentialism vote for "To BE" that is `man must exist', because in the
words of Karl Jaspers, Existence is the source from which thinking and acting springs.
Heidegger supporting this view and says The essence of man lies in existence. In
existentialism 'to be or not to be' is of decisive importance. If one has decided to exist
(to be), he will start thinking and acting for the attainment of a status, which
deservedly belongs to man. According to Fernando, "Existentialism is a type of
philosophy which endeavours to analyze the basic structure of human existence and
calls individuals to an awareness of their existence in its essential freedom
[6]
.
According to K. Gurudutt, "Existentialism is an attempt to reach the innermost core of
human existence in a concrete and individual fashion. It is a reaction against
obstructions...It is essentially turning inward, a probing of the layers of the self, in a
manful effort to penetrate to the vary centre if possible
[7]
".
Existentialism is foreshadowed most notably by 19th century philosophers
Soren Kierkegaard, a Danish philosopher and the progenitor of existentialism says,
"Each individual process is unique and inexplicable in terms of any metaphysical or
scientific system, he is a being who thinks or contemplates, is free and because he is
8
free, he suffers and since his future depends in part upon his free choice, it (future) is
not altogether predictable". In the 20
th
century, the German philosopher Martin
Heidegger (starting from Husserl's phenomenology) influenced other existentialist
philosophers such as Jean-Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir and Albert Camus. Fyodor
Dostoevsky and Franz Kafka also described existentialist themes in their literary
works. Although there are some common tendencies amongst "existentialist" thinkers,
there are major differences and disagreements among them (most notably) the divide
between atheist existentialists like Sartre and theistic existentialists like Paul Tillich,
not all of them accept the validity of the term as applied to their own work
[8].
Soren Kierkegaard maintained that the individual is solely responsible for
giving his or her own life meaning
,
and for living that life passionately and sincerely
[9]
,
in spite of many existential obstacles and distractions including despair angst
absurdity alienation, and boredom
[10]
.
Subsequent existentialist philosophers retain the emphasis on the individual,
but differ, in varying degrees, on how one achieves and what constitutes a fulfilling
life, what obstacles must be overcome, and what external and internal factors are
involved, including the potential consequences of the existence
[11]
or non- existence of
God
[12][13]
. Many existentialists have also regarded traditional systematic or academic
philosophy, in both style and content, as too abstract and remote from concrete human
experience
[14] [15]
. Existentialism became fashionable in the post-World War years as a
way to reassert the importance of human individuality and freedom
[16]
.
Various definitions of existentialism have been proposed by different authors
are as:
Blackhem (1952) has described existentialism as a philosophy of being "a
philosophy of attestation and acceptance, and a refusal of the attempt to rationalize
and to think as Being
[17]
."
The peculiarity of existentialism, according to Blackhem is that, "It deals with
the separation of man from himself and from the world, which raises the question of
philosophy not by attempting to establish some universal form of justification which
9
will enable man to readjust himself but by permanently enlarging and lining the
separation itself as primordial and constitutive for personal existence
[18]
."
Harries and Leveys (1975) defined existentialism as "any of several
philosophic systems, all centered on the individual and his relationship to the universe
or to God
[19]
."
Tiryakian (1962) defines it as "an attempt to reaffirm the importance of the
individual by rigorous and in many respects radically new analysis of the nature of
man
[20]
."
The opinions presented here shows that, existentialism is a humanistic
perspective on the individual situation, a philosophy of existence, of being, of
authenticity and of universal freedom. It is a quest, beyond despair, for creative
identity. It is the philosophy that is a counselor in crisis, "A crisis in the individual's
life, which calls upon him to make a `choice' regarding his subsequent existence
[21]
."
In brief, Existence does not mean living alone; it means to maintain perfect,
powerful, self-conscious, responsible and intelligent life. Man should get opportunity
for subjective consciousness. Truth is realized only in inner life. As modern
mechanical and industrial life has taken away individual freedom from man,
Existentialism lays emphasis on Freedom and Individual Responsibility. It has an
Eye-view on human weakness and insecurity as man is leading a lonely life, being
surrounded by anxieties, frustrations, fear, feeling of guilt etc.
The term "existentialism" seems to have been coined by the French
philosopher Gabriel Marcel in the mid-1940's and adopted by Jean-Paul Sartre who,
on October 29, 1945, discussed his own existentialist position in a lecture to the Club
Maintenant in Paris. The lecture was published as `L existentialisme est un
humanisme', a short book which did much to popularize existentialist thought
[22]
.
The label has been applied retrospectively to other philosophers for whom
existence and, in particular, human existence were key philosophical topics. Martin
Heidegger had made human existence (Dasein) the focus of his work since the 1920s,
and Karl Jaspers had called his philosophy "Existenzphilosophie" in the 1930s
[23]
.
10
Both Heidegger and Jaspers had been influenced by the Danish philosopher
Kierkegaard. For Kierkegaard, the crisis of human existence had been a major
theme
[24].
He came to be regarded as the first existentialist, and has been called the
"father of existentialism". In fact he was the first to explicitly make existential
questions a primary focus in his philosophy. In retrospect, other writers have also
implicitly discussed existentialist themes throughout the history of philosophy and
literature. Due to the exposure of existentialist themes over the decades, when society
was officially introduced to existentialism, the term became quite popular almost
immedediately.
As early as 1835 in a letter to his friend Peter Wilhelm Lund, the Danish
philosopher Søren Kierkegaard wrote one of his first existentially sensitive passages:
"What I really lack is to be clear in my mind what I am to do, not what I am to
know, except in so far as certain knowledge must precede every action. The thing is
to understand myself, to see what God really wishes me to do: the thing is to find a
truth which is true for me, to find the idea for which I can live and die. ... I
certainly do not deny that I still recognize an imperative of knowledge and that
through it one can work upon men, but it must be taken up into my life, and that is
what I now recognize as the most important thing
[25]
.
Soren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche
were two of the first philosophers
considered fundamental to the existentialist movement, though neither used the term
"existentialism" and it is unclear whether they would have supported the
existentialism of the 20
th
century. They focused on subjective human experience
rather than the objective truths of mathematics and science, which they believed were
too detached or observational to truly get at the human experience. Like Pascal, they
were interested in people's quiet struggle with the apparent meaninglessness of life
and the use of diversion to escape from boredom. Unlike Pascal, Kierkegaard and
Nietzsche also considered the role of making free choices, particularly regarding
fundamental values and beliefs, and how such choices change the nature and identity
of the chooser
[26]
. Kierkegaard's `Knight of Faith' and Nietzsche's `Ubermensch'
representative of people who exhibit freedom, in that they define the nature of their
own existence. Nietzsche's idealized individual invents his or her own values and
11
creates the very terms under which they excel. By contrast, Kierkegaard was a
Christian, but one who argued that objective certainty of religious truths was not only
impossible, but would eliminate the passionate life required of a Christian who must
make a leap of faith to believe in the paradox of the God-man Christ. Kierkegaard and
Nietzsche were also precursors to other intellectual movements, including
postmodernism, nihilism, and various strands of psychology.
Two of the first literary authors important to existentialism were the Czech
Franz Kafka and the Russian Fyodor Dostoevsky. Dostoevsky's Notes from
Underground portrays a man unable to fit into society and unhappy with the identities
he creates for himself. Jean-Paul Sartre, in his book on existentialism, `Existentialism
is Humanism', quoted Dostoevsky's `The Brothers Karamazov
'
as an example of
existential crisis. He quotes Ivan Karamazov who claims that "If God did not exist, all
things would be permitted." Others of Dostoevsky's novels covered issues raised in
existentialist philosophy, while presenting story lines divergent from secular
existentialism: for example, in Crime and Punishment the protagonist Raskolnikov
experiences an existential crisis and then moves toward a Christian Orthodox
worldview similar to that advocated by Dostoevsky himself.
Kafka created surreal and alienated characters who struggle with hopelessness
and absurdity, notably in his most famous novella, The Metamorphosis,
or in his
master novel, `The Trial'. In his philosophical essay `The Myth of Sisyphus', the
French existentialist/absurdist Albert Camus describes Kafka's sum total life work as
"absurd in principle
[27]
," but Dostoevsky finds the same "tremendous cry of hope"
expressed by religious existentialists such as Kierkegaard and Shestov-which Camus
rejects
[28]
.
In the first decades of the 20
th
century, a number of philosophers and writers
had explored existentialist ideas; the only difference was in the name. The Spanish
philosopher Miguel de Unamuno y jugo, in his 1913 book The `Tragic Sense of Life'
in Men and Nations, emphasized the life of "flesh and bone" as opposed to that of
abstract rationalism. Unamuno rejected systematic philosophy in favor of the
individual's quest for faith. He retained a sense of the tragic, even absurd nature of the
12
quest, symbolized by his enduring interest in Cervantes fictional character `Don
Quixote
'
. A novelist, poet and dramatist as well as philosophy professor at the
University of Salamanca, Unamuno's short story about a priest's crisis of faith, "Saint
Manuel the Good, Martyr" has been collected in anthologies of existentialist fiction.
Another Spanish thinker, Ortega y Gasset, writing in 1914, held that the human
existence must always be defined as the individual person combined with the concrete
circumstances of his life: "Yo soy yo y mis circumstancias ("I am myself and my
circumstances"). Sartre likewise believed that human existence is not an abstract
matter, but is always situated ("en situación").
Although Martin Buber wrote his major philosophical works in German, and
studied and taught at the Universities of Berlin and Frankfurt, he stands apart from the
mainstream of German philosophy. Born into a Jewish family in Vienna in 1878, he
was also a scholar of Jewish culture and involved at various times in Zionism and
Hasidism. In 1938, he moved permanently to Jerusalem. His best-known
philosophical work was the short book `I and Thou', published in 1922. For Buber,
the fundamental fact of human existence, too readily overlooked by scientific
rationalism and abstract philosophical thought, is "man with man", a dialogue which
takes place in the so-called "sphere of between" ("das Zwischenmenschliche")
[29].
Two Ukrainian/Russian thinkers, Lev Shestov and Nikolai Berdyaev became
well-known as existentialist thinkers during their post-Revolutionary exiles in Paris.
Shestov, born into a Ukrainian-Jewish family in Kiev, had launched an attack on
rationalism and systematization in philosophy as early as 1905 in his book of
aphorisms `All Things Are Possible'.
Berdyaev, also from Kiev but with a background in the Eastern Orthodox
Church, drew a radical distinction between the world of spirit and the everyday world
of objects. Human freedom, for Berdyaev, is rooted in the realm of spirit, a realm
independent of scientific notions of causation. To the extent the individual human
being lives in the objective world, he is estranged from authentic spiritual freedom.
"Man" is not to be interpreted naturalistically, but as a being created in God's image,
13
an originator of free, creative acts
[30]
. He published a major work on these themes,
`The Destiny of Man', in 1931.
Gabriel Marcel, long before coining the term "existentialism", introduced
important existentialist themes to a French audience in his early essay `Existence and
Objectivity' (1925) and in his Metaphysical Journal 1927. A dramatist as well as a
philosopher, Marcel found his philosophical starting point in a condition of
metaphysical alienation; the human individual searching for harmony in a transient
life. Harmony, for Marcel, was to be sought through "secondary reflection", a
"dialogical" rather than "dialectical" approach to the world, characterized by "wonder
and astonishment" and open to the "presence" of other people and of God rather than
merely to "information" about them. For Marcel, such presence implied more than
simply being there (as one thing might be in the presence of another thing); it
connoted "extravagant" availability, and the willingness to put oneself at the disposal
of the other
[31].
Marcel contrasted "secondary reflection" with abstract, scientific-technical
"primary reflection" which he associated with the activity of the abstract Cartesian
ego. For Marcel, philosophy was a concrete activity undertaken by a sensing, feeling
human being incarnate -- embodied -- in a concrete world
[32]
. Although Jean-Paul
Sartre adopted the term "existentialism" for his own philosophy in the 1940s, Marcel's
thought has been described as "almost diametrically opposed" to that of Sartre. Unlike
Sartre, Marcel was a Christian, and became a Catholic convert in 1929.
In Germany, the psychologist and philosopher Karl Jaspers -who later
described existentialism as a "phantom" created by the public
[33]
-called his own
thought, heavily influenced by Kierkegaard and Nietzsche- Existenzphilosophie. For
Jaspers, "Existenz-philosophy is the way of thought by means of which man seeks to
become himself. This way of thought does not cognize objects, but elucidates and
makes actual the being of the thinker
[34]
."
Jaspers, a professor at the University of Heidelberg, was acquainted with
Martin Heidegger, who held a professorship at Marburg before acceding to Husserl's
chair at Freiburg in 1928. They held many philosophical discussions, but later became
14
estranged over Heidegger's support of National Socialism. They shared an admiration
for Kierkegaard
[35]
, and in the 1930s Heidegger lectured extensively on Nietzsche.
Nevertheless, the extent to which Heidegger should be considered an existentialist is
debatable. In `Being and Time
'
he presented a method of rooting philosophical
explanations in human existence (Dasein) to be analyzed in terms of existential
categories (existentiale); and this has led many commentators to treat him as an
important figure in the existentialist movement.
Following the Second World War, existentialism became a well-known and
significant philosophical and cultural movement, mainly through the public
prominence of two French writers, Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus, who wrote
best-selling novels, plays and widely read journalism as well as theoretical texts.
These years also saw the growing reputation outside Germany of Heidegger's book
`Being and Time'.
Sartre had dealt with existentialist themes in his 1938 novel `Nausea
'
and the
short stories in his 1939 collection `The Wall' , and had published a major
philosophical statement, `Being and Nothingness' in 1943, but it was in the two years
following the liberation of Paris from the German occupying forces that he and his
close associates-Camus, Simone de Beauvoir, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, and others-
became internationally famous as the leading figures of a movement known as
existentialism
[36]
. In a very short space of time, Camus and Sartre in particular,
became the leading public intellectuals of post-war France, achieving by the end of
1945 A fame that reached across all audiences
[37]
. Camus was an editor of the most
popular leftist (Former French Resistance) newspaper Combat; Sartre launched his
journal of leftist thought, Les Temps Modemes, and two weeks later gave the widely
reported lecture on existentialism and secular humanism to a packed meeting of the
Club Maintenant. Beauvoir wrote that not a week passed without the newspapers
discussing us
[38];
existentialism became the first media craze of the postwar era
[39].
By the end of 1947, Camus' earlier fiction and plays had been reprinted, his
new play `Caligula' had been performed and his novel `The Plague
'
published; the
first two novels of Sartre's `The Roads to Freedom trilogy' had appeared, as had
15
Beauvoir's novel `The Blood of Others'. Works by Camus and Sartre were already
appearing in foreign editions. The Paris-based existentialists had become famous.
Sartre had traveled to Germany in 1930 to study the phenomenology of
Edmund Husserl and
Heidegger
[40]
,
and he included critical comments on their work
in his major treatise `Being and Nothingness'. Heidegger's thought had also become
known in French philosophical circles through its use by Alexandre Kojeve in
explicating Hegel in a series of lectures given in Paris in the 1930's
[41].
The lectures
were highly influential; members of the audience included not only Sartre and
Merleau-Ponty, but Raymond Quenmond, Georges Bataille, Louis Althusser, Andre
Breton and Jacques Lacan
[42]
. A selection from Heidegger's `Being and Time' was
published in French in 1938, and his essays began to appear in French philosophy
journals
.
Heidegger read Sartre's work and was initially impressed and thus
commenting: "Here for the first time I encountered an independent thinker who, from
the foundations up, has experienced the area out of which I think. Your work shows
such an immediate comprehension of my philosophy as I have never before
encountered
[43].
" Later, however, in response to a question posed by his French
follower Jean Beaufret, Heidegger distanced himself from Sartre's position and
existentialism in general in his `Letter on Humanism'
[44].
Heidegger's reputation
continued to grow in France during the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1960s, Sartre
attempted to reconcile existentialism and Marxism in his work `Critique of Dialectical
Reason'. A major theme throughout his writings was `Freedom and responsibility'.
Camus was a friend of Sartre, until their falling-out, and wrote several works
with existential themes including `The `Rebel', `The Stranger', `The Myth of
Sisyphus', and `Summer in Algiers'. Camus, like many others, rejected the
existentialist label, and considered his works to be concerned with facing the absurd.
In the titular book, Camus uses the analogy of the Greek myth of Sisyphus to
demonstrate the futility of existence. In the myth, Sisyphus is condemned for eternity
to roll a rock up a hill, but when he reaches the summit, the rock will roll to the
bottom again. Camus believes that this existence is pointless but that Sisyphus
16
ultimately finds meaning and purpose in his task, simply by continually applying
himself to it. The first half of the book contains an extended rebuttal of what Camus
took to be existentialist philosophy in the works of Kierkegaard, Shestov, Heidegger,
and Jaspers.
Simone de Beauvoir, an important existentialist who spent much of her life as
Sartre's partner, wrote about feminist and existentialist ethics in her works, including
`The Second Sex' and `The Ethics of Ambiguity'. Although often overlooked due to
her relationship with Sartre, de Beauvoir integrated existentialism with other forms of
thinking such as feminism, unheard of at the time, resulting in alienation from fellow
writers such as Camus. Frantz Fanon, a Martiniquan-born critic of colonialism, has
been considered an important existentialist. Paul Tillich, an important existentialist
theologian following Kierkegaard and Karl Barth, applied existentialist concepts to
Christian theology, and helped introduce existential theology to the general public.
His seminal work `The Courage to Be' follows Kierkegaard's analysis of anxiety and
life's absurdity, but puts forward the thesis that modern man must, via God, achieve
selfhood in spite of life's absurdity. Rudolf Bultmann used Kierkegaard's and
Heidegger's philosophy of existence to demythologize Christianity by interpreting
Christian mythical concepts into existentialist concepts.
Maurice-Ponty, an existential phenomenologist, was for a time a companion of
Sartre. His understanding of Husserl's phenomenology was far greater than that of
Merleau-Ponty's fellow existentialists [Vague]. It has been said that his work
Humanism and Terror greatly influenced Sartre. However, in later years they were to
disagree irreparably, dividing many existentialists such as de Beauvoir, who sided
with Sartre.
Colin Wilson, an English writer, published his study `The Outsider' in 1956,
initially to critical acclaim. In this book and others (e.g. Introduction to the New
Existentialism), he attempted to reinvigorate what he perceived as a pessimistic
philosophy and bring it to a wider audience. He was not, however, academically
trained, and his work was attacked by professional philosophers for lack of rigor and
critical standards
[45]
.
17
Existentialist thinkers focus on the question of concrete human existence and
the conditions of this existence rather than hypothesizing a human essence, stressing
that the human essence is determined through life choices. However, even though the
concrete individual existence must have priority in existentialism, certain conditions
are commonly held to be "endemic" to human existence.
What these conditions are is better understood in light of the meaning of the
word "existence," which comes from the Latin "existere," meaning "to stand out"
(according to the OED, "existere" translates as "come into being"; the other definition
presented here allows a slanted view and false implications as seen in the following
passage). Man exists in a state of distance from the world that he nonetheless remains
in the midst of. This distance is what enables man to project meaning into the
disinterested world of in-itself. This projected meaning remains fragile, constantly
facing breakdown for any reason-from a tragedy to a particularly insightful moment.
In such a breakdown, we are put face to face with the naked meaninglessness of the
world, and the results can be devastating.
A central proposition of existentialism is that existence precedes essence,
which means that the actual life of the individual is what constitutes what could be
called his or her `essence' instead of there being a predetermined essence that defines
what it is to be a human. Thus, the human being -- through their own consciousness
creates their own values and determines a meaning to their life. Although it was Sartre
who explicitly coined the phrase, similar notions can be found in the thought of many
existentialist philosophers, from Mulla Sadra
[46]
, to Kierkegaard, to Heidegger.
It is often claimed in this context that a person defines him or herself, which is
often perceived as stating that they can "wish" to be something -- anything, a bird, for
instance -- and then be it. According to most existentialist philosophers, however, this
would constitute an inauthentic existence. Instead, the phrase should be taken to say
that the person is (1) defined only insofar as he or she acts and (2) that he or she is
responsible for his or her actions. For example, someone who acts cruelly towards
other people is, by that act, defined as a cruel person. Furthermore, by this action of
18
cruelty such persons are themselves responsible for their new identity (a cruel person).
This is as opposed to their genes, or 'human nature', bearing the blame.
As Sartre puts in his Existentialism is Humanism: "Man first of all exists,
encounters himself, surges up in the world and defines himself afterwards." Of
course, the more positive, therapeutic aspect of this is also implied: A person can
choose to act in a different way, and to be a good person instead of a cruel person.
Here it is also clear that since man can choose to be either cruel or good, he is, in fact,
neither of, these things essentially
[47]
.
Existence Precedes Essence
Fig.1: Sartre view regarding existence precedes essence
Essence Precedes Existence
Fig. 2. The Traditional View (which Sartre argues against):
19
Need and Importance of the Study
Modern education makes man so much objective that our relation with self is
broken. Man becomes mechanical and industrial he is full of anxieties and
frustrations. Today human beings everywhere suffer from one sidedness in thought
and action. The most significant truth that has been emerged in the present day
knowledge is that reality is multisided. The most important fact about human nature is
that it is many-faceted, complex and involves individual differences. Therefore,
existentialistic education is the need of our time. Existentialism advocated such
educational system which may gradually take the students to subjectivity, though in
the beginning they may obtain objective knowledge in contact of the objective world.
Therefore, there is a lot of scope for carrying out research on existentialistic
philosophy of education, which is very much significant to global civilization so far as
the moral and religious education is concerned. The present study will cater the needs
of value craving modern generation who are frantically grouping for such a panacea in
the materialistic and demonic environs of modern philosophy. The present study will
help in remodeling and rejuvenating the erstwhile balanced and holistic approach to
education as such where human life is integrated and not fragmented into watertight
compartments.
The educational system of a country is the product of a variety of factors that
characterize the life of people. Moral education is the form of character development
is a potent force to be reckoned with in the field of education. The impact of moral
education is an integral part of the educational system of a country is so profound that
it can be conceived as an effective tool, by which the cultural pattern of people is
preserved and their national destiny is achieved.
The Secondary Education Commission while emphasizing fully the need for
religious and moral instruction in schools stressed the importance of the influence of
the school through the conduct and behavior of teachers themselves. The Kothari
Commission has also taken cognizance of the need for training in spiritual and moral
values as an integrated part of the modern education. National Policy of Education
20
also stressed value education as an integral part of the learning process which will
enable to uphold human values necessary for raising the quality of life for all.
The above mentioned recommendations made by different commissions time to
time can be best made applicable through the present study, therefore there is a wide
scope and relevance of present topic which needs to be dealt comprehensive.
Panday (1991) has revealed that Jean Paul Sartre, considered existentialistic
education essential for creating awareness about man's existence and preparing for
life's struggle. It is necessary for ensuring freedom - the freedom of making a choice.
Moreover, in the Indian context through the existentialistic objectives of education,
we can strike a balance between spiritualism and materialism. Gavin Sanderson
(2004) revealed that our contemporary engagement with the Culture Other than from
an existential perspective and introduces the idea of the 'fear of the unknown' as a
foundation of our difficulty in accepting awareness. It also offers a way forward by
means of the internationalization of the self. Del Loewenthal (2008) stressed that the
introduction of post existentialistic practice is a therapy for people to realise their
identity. This study further stressed that existentialistic education can be helpful to us
in exploring our existence at the start of the 21
st
century. Aminuddin Hassan et al.
(2009) pointed out that social problems such as drug addiction, gangsterism, running
away from home and others can be prevented by philosophy so far as the existential
philosophy is concerned. Furthermore, existentialism believes that in educating an
individual, punishment and cane are the inappropriate way. Marion et al. (2012) has
found that existential crises is a deep questioning about life and its meaning, arising
from angst, despair, or failure or due to any event that triggers our hearts and minds,
to a level where our existence become dilute, apparently.
Keeping in view the above studies, the scholars here and there have touched the
subject but no study has dealt with educational philosophy of existentialism and its
impact on education system and relevance to Indian contemporary education.
Therefore, there is wide scope for carrying out research in this direction.
While going through a trend report in philosophy of education, which clearly
depicts that 25% of the research have their focus on problems and issues cutting
21
across philosophical schools and personalities all the rest concern themselves with the
study of educational philosophy of thinkers and systems which included Gandhi
(1869-1948), Tagore (1861-1941), Vivekananda (1863-1902), Nehru (1889-1964),
Iqbal (1877-1938 ), Bhave (1895-1982), Aurobindo (1872-1950), Tilak (1856-1920),
Dewy (1859-1952), Kilpatric (1871-1965), Freud (1856-1939), Adler (1870 1937),
Jung (1875-1961), Russell (1872-1970), Whitehead (1861-1947), Bergson (1859-
1941). This report clearly depicts that existentialistic philosophy is unexplored and
need to be studied from educational point of view. This justifies the need for
conducting a serious research in this direction. Therefore, the present investigator felt
to undertake an in depth study on existentialism and its relevance to the contemporary
system of education in India.
Statement of Problem
The research problem thus conceived has been formulated as:
"Existentialism and its Relevance to the Contemporary System of Education in
India".
Objectives of the Study
The study envisages to realize the following objectives.
1.
To study the philosophy of existentialism.
2.
To study the educational implications of existentialism.
3.
To examine the impact of existentialistic philosophy on theory and practice of
education.
4.
To determine the relevance of existentialistic philosophy to the contemporary
system of education in India.
22
References
1.
Kingston, F. (1981). French Existentialism: A Christian Critique, p. xii.
2.
Macquarrie, J. (1972). Existentialism, p.18.
3.
Ted, H. (1995). Oxford Companion to Philosophy, p.259.
4.
Macquarrie, J. (1972). Op. cit p.14-15.
5.
Cooper. D. (1999). Existentialism: A Reconstruction, p.8.
6.
Taneja, V. (2003). Socio-Philosophical Approach to Education, p. 209.
7.
Ibid. p. 209.
8.
Walter, K. (1956). Existentialism: From Dostoevsky to Sartre, p.11.
9.
Lowrie, W. (1968). Kierkegaard's Attack Upon "Christendom", p. 37- 40.
10.
Corrigan, J. (2008). The Oxford Hand Book of Religion and Emotion. p. 387-
388.
11.
Livingstone. J, et al. (2006). Modern Christian Thought: The Twentieth
Century, Chapter. 5.
12.
Robert, S. (1974). Existentialism, p.1-2.
13.
Cooper, D.E. (1999). Op.cit, p.8.
14.
Emst, B. (1962). Introduction to Modern Existentialism, p.5.
15.
Walter, K. (1956). Op. cit. p.12.
16.
Guignon. C and Derk, P. (2001). Existentialism: Basic Writings, p. xiii.
17.
Blackham, H. (1953). Six Existentialist thinkers, p.150.
18.
Ibid, p. 151-152.
19.
Harris, W and Lovely, J. (1975). The New Columbia Encyclopedia, p.911.
20.
Tiryakian, E. (1962). Socialism and Existentialism: Two perspective on the
Industrial and Society, p. 77.
21.
Strinivasan, G. (1967). The Existentialist and Hindu Philosophical systems, p.
23
17.
22.
L'Existentialisme est un Humanisme (Editions Nagel, 1946), English Sartre, J.
(1948). Existentialism and Humanism, Eyre Methuen.
23.
John, P. (2006). A Dictionary of Continental Philosophy, p. 325.
24.
Michael, W. (2003). Kierkegaard and Modern Continental Philosophy, p. 35.
25.
Kierkegaard, S. (2000). The Essential Kierkegaard (Howard and Edna Hong,
Trans.).
26.
Luper, S. (2000). Existing, p. 4-5.
27.
Albert, C. (1955). The Myth of Sisyphus, p.104.
28.
Ibid. p.107.
29.
Maurice, S and Martin, B. (1955). The Life of dialogue, p.85.
30.
Emst, B. (1962). Introduction to Modern Existentialism, p.173-176.
31.
Macquarie, J. (1973). Existentialism, p. 110.
32.
Ibid, p.96.
33.
Jaspers, K. (1957). Philosophical Autobiography in Paul Arthur Schilpp (ed.),
The Philosophy of Jarl Jasper, p.75/11.
34.
Ibid. p. 40.
35.
Ibid, p.75/2.
36.
Ronald, A. (2004). Camus and Sartre, chapter, 3.
37.
Ibid. (1985). p.44.
38.
Simone de Beauvoir, (2004). Force of Circumstances, quoted in Ronald
Aronson, Camus and Sartre, p.48.
39.
Ronald, A. (2004). Op cit. p.48.
40.
Rudiger, S. (1998). Martin Heidegger-Between Good and Evil, p. 343.
41.
Martin, C. (2006). The Essentials of Philosophy and Ethics, p. 158.
24
42.
Ibid.
43.
Heidegger, M. letter quoted in Rudiger, S. (1998). Martin Heidegger_
Between Good and Evil, p. 349.
44.
Willum, J. (1967). Martin Heidegger: From Phenomenology to Thought, p.
351.
45.
Gunnar, K. (1983). An Odyssey to Freedom, p. 92.
46.
Razavi, M. (1997). Suhrawardi and the School of Illumination, p. 129.
47.
Baird, F and Walter Kaufmann (2008). From Plato to Derrida, p.6.
25
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
nowledge is cumulative; every piece of research will contribute another piece of it.
That is why it is important to commence all research with a review of the related
literature or research and to determine whether any data source existed already that
can be brought to bear on the problem at hand. This is also referred to as secondary
research. Just as each study relies on earlier work; it will provide a basis for further
work by the researcher.
The surveys of related studies avoids the risk of duplication, provide theories,
ideas, explanation of hypothesis valuable in formulating the problem and contribution
to the general scholarship of the investigators. The literature is in the form of books,
monographs, government publications on education, encyclopedia of education,
education indexes, education abstracts, journals etc.
According to Tuckman (1971), the purpose of the literature review is to expand
upon the context and background of the study, to help further, to define the problem
and to provide an empirical basis for the subsequent development of hypothesis. The
length of the review depends upon the number of relevant articles and the purpose for
which the research report is being written.
Review of the related literature, besides allowing the researcher to acquaint
with current knowledge in the field or area in which one is going to conduct his
research, serves the following specific purposes:
1.
The review of related literature enables the researcher to define the limits of the
field. It helps the researcher to delimit and define the problem.
2.
The knowledge of related literature brings the researcher up-to-date on the work
K
26
which other have done and thus to state the objectives clearly and concisely.
3.
By reviewing the related literature, the researcher can avoid unfruitful and
useless problem areas. He can select those areas in which positive findings are
very likely to result and her endeavors would be likely to add to the knowledge
in a meaningful way.
4.
Through the review of related literature, the investigator can avoid
unintentional duplication of well established findings. It is no use to replicate a
study when the stability and validity of its results have been clearly established.
5.
The review of the related literature gives the researcher an understanding of the
research methodology which refers to the way of the study is to be conducted. It
helps the researcher to know about the tools and instruments which prove to
useful and promising in the previous studies. The advantage of the related
literature is also to provide insight into statistical methods through which
validity of results is to be established.
6.
The final and important specific reason for reviewing the related literature is to
know about the recommendations of the previous researchers for further
research which they have listed in the studies.
In this chapter an attempt has been made to present a review of the research
studies carried by different investigators on general philosophy and educational
philosophy of Existentialism. It also includes the review of studies and researches
which are directly or indirectly relevant to Existentialistic school of philosophy.
Raymond, C. (1971)
Existentialism in the Classroom
1
.
This paper presents the basic concepts of existentialism. How man related to
education and his search for meaning in his life is the main concern of the
existentialist. The best way to find meaning is through one's realization of freedom of
choices. When man realizes he has the ability to choose his life and be responsible for
himself, he is on his way to self realization. Achieving this awareness is the goal of
existentialist. This is personal approach; it stresses the importance of communicating
in such a way as to make other people feel accepted and worthwhile. The existentialist
27
teacher is one who cares and is concerned, one who is involved with people. He
knows that all learning is for self realization and self fulfillment.
Major findings:
1.
Existentialism reminds the individual that he is constantly freely, baselessly
choosing every thought, action and value he has.
2.
In the existentialist classroom, the teacher is prime importance. He is a
fascinating person who assists the immature person to find effective ways of
getting the importance he needs to satisfy his curiosity about the world in
which he lives.
3.
The teacher's function is to assist each student personally in his search for
authentic self realization.
4.
The good teacher is not one who behaves in any certain way but who makes
the best use of his own unique personality
5.
The methods a teacher use should be flexible and fit the kind of person he is
and the kinds of students he meets
6.
Teacher should encourage experimentation.
7.
Existentialist teacher should provide an atmosphere of acceptance.
Jabar, Z.
(1976) A Critical Study of Educational Implications of
Existentialism
2
.
The objective of the study was to analyze the main philosophical ideas of
existentialism, and to discuss, the aims of education, methods, contents. and
relationship between the teacher and the taught in existentialist schools and
Universities. For this study, a critical interpretive and evaluative study of books and
authors were made.
Major findings:
1.
Existentialism is the philosophy of the present-day man who is undergoing and
experiencing internal and external tensions, conflict, and crisis unknown to the
earlier man. As such, it seeks away out of the dilemmas of life t0 an authentic
28
and more meaningful existence of man.
2.
Existential knowledge is a direct outcome of man's interaction with his world
of experience. True knowledge is obtained through the transcendence of the
self to various objects of the world so as to make them internally felt as if they
were the part of one's existence.
3.
The aim of existentialistic education is to liberate mankind from all social
taboos and cultural norms. The nature of this education will be governed by the
philosophy of self-realization, which means that each individual will be
educated so that he may critically examine his emotions and judge the realities
of this world in accordance with his personal experience.
4.
The existentialistic curriculum will include subjects which help the
development of the student's whole being art, literature, music, drama, religion
and philosophy will be included in the curriculum because they are capable of
satisfying existential students. Due consideration will also be given to the
knowledge of medicine and pathology because of their importance for the
physical and mental health of the individual.
5.
Existentialists recommended Socratic Method of teaching because it is through
indirect method only that a genuine academic freedom is possible.
Saxena, S.
(1988) Astitvavaada-Sartre Ke Jeevan Darshan ki
Shaikshiya Nihitara (Existentialism- Educational
Values of the Life of Sartre)
3
.
The present study was conducted to analyze the existentialism-educational
values of the life of Sartre with the objectives, to analyze the conditions that affected
the philosophy of life and the educational ideas of Sartre. The second purpose of this
study was to select, classify and analyze the conditions that affected the philosophy
and educational ideas of Sartre. The third purpose of this study was to explore the
educational values as propounded by Sartre.
Major findings:
1.
Sartre's ideas about power may be summarized as.
29
a.
Being itself or Etre-power-soi,
b.
Being in itself or Etre-en-soi,
c.
Being for others or Etre-pour-autronic
2.
He has discussed about ideas of nothingness.
3.
Consciousness is not the outcome of nothingness
4.
Freedom is the basic thing.
5.
Education should be individual centered.
Jiang, G.
(1990)
Impact of Existentialistic Philosophical
Thoughts on Some Young People
4
.
The present study was conducted to analyze the impact of existentialistic
philosophical thought on some of the young people in China. This study revealed that
some of the young people in china are rather deeply influenced by a current of
existentialistic philosophy.
Major findings:
1.
Under the ideological impact of the proposition that "life is nihilistic, and the
world is ridiculous". Some young people have grown to have little confidence
or none at all, in Marxism Leninism, in socialism, and in the leadership of the
communist party.
2.
According to statistics, 52.86% of the young students have not given any
thought to joining the Chinese Communist Party or Party Organization.
3.
14.36% expressed clearly that they simply will not consider it.
4.
82% see communication as an illusion that can be seen from afar but not
actually approached.
Osborn, J.
(1990)
Some Basic Existential-Phenomenological
Research Methodology For Counselors
5
.
This paper describes the major characteristics of existential-phenomenological
research methodology for counselors. The following topics are discussed:
philosophical foundations, formulating the question, selection of participants,
30
bracketing, data sources, data analysis, reliability and validity. The similarity of
qualities needed for success as a counselor and existential phenomenological
researcher are presented as a basis for advocating their integrative practice.
Major findings:
1.
Existential-phenomenological is a human knowledge and apprehended through
our phenomenal experience.
2.
Phenomenological research is not intended to test on hypothesis.
3.
Existential-phenomenology recognizes the unavoidable presence of the
researcher in the formulation of the question, the determination of what are the
data, the collection of data, and their interpretation.
Panday, V.
(1991)
A Critical Study of Existentialistic Philosophical
Thoughts and its Educational Implications
6
.
The present study was conducted to analyze the critical study of existentialistic
philosophical thoughts and its educational implications. The objectives of the study
were to analyze those situations and influences which provide a special feature to the
philosophy of existentialism and the existentialistic philosophic thought. The study
attempts to discuss the philosophies of some important existentialistic philosophers.
The study further examines critically the utility of existentialistic thought in
contemporary Indian context.
Method
The procedure used is that of historical and philosophical research relying on
primary and secondary sources and subjecting them to external criticism.
Major findings:
1.
Jean Paul Sartre considered education essential for creating awareness about
man's existence and preparing him for life struggle.
2.
The nature of education should be such that it includes self-confidence,
freedom of choice, awareness of self-participation for life, its struggle and the
31
pain that is inherent in making a choice.
3.
The teacher is only a guide who should only protect children's self rather than
imposing his own `self'.
4.
Education need not be tied down to a curriculum. Sartre advocated a
relationship between the child and the curriculum which is independent of each
other. He emphasized the utility of the humanities and literature for inclusion
in the curriculum.
5.
Existentialists oppose scientific subjects. They do not disapprove however of
technical and religious education.
6.
Teaching methods should be such as to suit children, encourage thinking and
cater to the individual needs.
7.
Sartre believed that Samkars should be instilled at the school stage. He
advocated education without schools (abolition of schools in the present
schools).
8.
There is a need to combat all those forces in culture and society that tend to
humanize men by denying them freedom.
9.
In the Indian context, through existentialists' objective of education we can
strike a balance between spiritualism and materialism.
10.
The existentialistic way of education is capable of making an individual
practical and disciplined.
Sonal, K. (1992) Karl Jasper and Existentialism
7
The study is on existentialism which is a philosophy of life. It reflects the modern
man's mind and his situation which includes guilt, suffering, evil, loneliness, fear,
problems of communication etc. Are these inevitable dead ends or can they be
overcome? What is the significance of transcendence, freedom and love? How is
today's man linked with God? Existentialism has an impact not only on philosophy
but on literature, art, the drama, and the cinema.
Major findings:
1.
Karl Jasper is a dynamic representative of existentialism.
32
2.
Jasper has much to offer to solve not only international problem, but inter
human conflict.
3.
Karl Jasper's philosophy provides a metaphysical base for communication.
4.
Jasper believes in a diversity of views and is dead against any claim to absolute
possession of truth.
5.
He is a very broad minded and catholic approach and respect differences in
religion, country and culture.
6.
The entire focus of jaspers philosophy is on personal existence.
Gary, H. (1993)
Existentialism: Practical Classroom Applications
8
.
The present study was conducted to analyze existentialism: practical classroom
applications with the objectives, to analyze the role of teacher in classroom. For
conducting this study, the philosophical and historical methods were employed. The
primary and secondary sources related to the study were evaluated after detailed
analysis. The study revealed that teachers should include among their highest teaching
objectives the cultivation of a classroom environment where children are encouraged
to enthusiastically pursue the unique, the personal, and the creative, so that they will
develop a strong sense of purpose and a distinctive identity.
Major findings:
1.
Teachers should encourage student's creative expression.
2.
Teachers should first realize that reality is experienced subjectivity.
3.
Existential teachers teach the student to have "The courage to be".
4.
Teachers should provide opportunities to the students to make meaningful
choices and decisions in the classroom.
5.
Teachers who continuously challenge and inspire their students to have "The
courage to be" may well see their students leave school with a strong sense of
identity, confident in their ability to make wise decisions, and with the courage
to vigorously pursue their essence.
33
David, K.
(1997) Existentialism And Constructivism: A Bi-polar
Model Of Subjectivity
9
.
The philosophical systems of existentialism and constructivism have generated
distinct clinical approaches based on seemingly incompatible conceptions of
subjectivity and its role in clinical work. The premise of this paper is that, taken
together, existential and constructivist perspectives provide an essentially dialectical
view of personal identity, suggesting that a bi-polar model of subjectivity may yield a
broader therapeutic gain than either/or positions. Author demonstrate this premise by
illustrating the central tenets of each approach using clinical vignettes and then further
elucidate each position by drawing upon its philosophical underpinnings. Finally,
author presents a longer clinical illustration that contains both an existential and a
constructivist phase.
Major findings:
1.
Bi-polar model of subjective experience is relevant and applicable to clinical
social work by offering a flexible conception of the self that may include both
existential and constructivist phase.
2.
The author argued that Assagioli's integrated vision of the self, as a centre of
awareness and will, leads us to a conception of personal identity as an ongoing
dielectric between alternating subjective modes.
Juthika, D. (1998) Radhakrishnan's Thought and Existentialism
10
.
In this paper the author attempts to show the similarities between the
viewpoints of Radhakrishnan and the existentialist thinkers. The philosophy of
Radhakrishnan is an attempt to reinterpret and reconstruct the Advaita Vedanta of
Sankara in the light of scientific knowledge and techniques of modern time.
Existentialism is an attitude and outlook that emphasizes human existence. For
Radhakrishnan, the human is essentially subject, not object. The existentialists assert
that the human is not an object to be known, but a subject. Both Radhakrishnan and
the existentialists emphasize the immense potential and present day condition of
humanity. Radhakrishnan acknowledges the reality of suffering and misery of
34
worldly existence. The existentialists maintain that there are antinomies,
contradictions and distress at the root of existence. Radhakrishnan is concerned with
liberation as a state of freedom. Freedom is the central concept around which the
existential enquiry revolves. Though Radhakrishnan has certain affinities with
existentialism, he regards it as a stage in the human pilgrimage through life.
Major findings:
1.
Radakrishnan believes, man is more than matter, life or mind or all those taken
together.
2.
Radakrishnan believes, man has grown out of physical, vital, and animal life
into the power of manhood.
3.
Kierkegaard speaks of the 'individual existence' in a sense in which a man is
not simply a biological, psychological or social animal, but in which a man is a
'human being.
4.
Both Radhakrishnan and existentialists realizes deeply the present-day
condition of man.
5.
Man is reduced to a machine. Different disciplines treat man not as an
individual, but as an object. Existentialism points out that a type of thought
which dominates the treatment of objects is inadequate to the existing
individual.
6.
Liberation results from the realization of the real nature of man.
Masani, R.
(2001) Three Modern Enemies of Science: Materialism,
Existentialism and constructivism
11
.
Considering that of the three ideologies Materialism, Existentialism and
Constructivism- that materialism is the least scientific. It is believes that it has caused
a greatest harm by virtue of political control. Sees existentialism more hostile to
science but with its negative impact limited to theology and literature. While
constructivism is considered anti-scientific and may, via its influence on education, be
the promoter of the new `slavery'. Discuses these assertions through consideration of
35
scientific methodology evolving five principles which are applied to the each of the
three ideologies introduced.
Major findings:
1.
Existentialism is considerably more
hostile to science but with its negative impact
limited to theology and literature
.
2.
Of the three ideologies, materialism is the least unscientific but has caused the
greatest harm by virtue of the political control exercised by its Marxist Leninist
adherent over large parts of the globe, and by its considerably influence on the
struggle for social justice.
3.
The danger with the constructivist's doctrine is that it may lead to the belief
that each individual is entitled to his own view of reality.
Scott, W. 2002 Existentialism: Providing an Ideal Framework for
Educational Research in Times of Uncertainty
12
.
Issues such as anxiety, alienation, crises and concerns over self-identity typify this
era of uncertainty. These are also recognized themes of Existentialism and have
implications for educational practice and research. The purpose of this paper is
threefold. Firstly, it aims to clarify Existentialism, as too often it is mistakenly
assumed to refer to an atomistic view of the individual, who is able to exercise
absolute freedom. This clarification refers primarily to the works of Kierkegaard,
Nietzsche and Heidegger. The second purpose is to present an outline of a particular
existential framework. This is mainly structured around the notion of the learner, who
is characterized as being in relation, culturally embedded, alienated and a meaning-
maker. These attributes have direct implications for the ideal of 'the educated person' -
an often-articulated 'aim' of education programmes. Becoming educated, according to
this framework, means becoming authentic, spiritual, critical, empathetic, and having
personal identity. A third purpose is to argue how educators may usefully employ such
a framework. By engaging with it, educators are able to examine effective pedagogical
approaches using notions of 'the existential crisis' and anxiety. In this way, educational
curriculums, programmes and policies can also be critiqued using this framework.
36
Major findings:
1.
Existentialists claim that `subjectivity is truth' and truth is absolute.
2.
By living authentically, one can choose one's own identity and possibilities
rather than have these dictated by others.
3.
According to existentialism, freedom cannot be absolute as it always
contextualized to the situation of each individual.
4.
Education should involve the notion of becoming `truly human' and aims to
create awareness in the teacher.
5.
This framework also provides criteria by which pedagogies, curriculum
policies and programmes can be evaluated.
4.
Existentialism does not promote dualistic models of self and the world, but
explains this condition as self-estrangements.
Robert, S. (2003) An Existential Framework of Spirituality for
Education
13.
As spiritual development is an aspect of the overall educative development of
individuals, attention was given to what is meant by both `education' and the
`educated person'. This initial research provided the context by which spiritual
development could be understood and grounded in accepted and well argued notions
of what interventions into the development of the individual are to count as
educational. This also clarified the context for which the formulated framework of
spirituality was to have implications.
The thesis sets out to achieve two main purposes- firstly the meaning of
spirituality and spiritual development, and second to a recommended such
development may effectively be provided through education. The major approach of
this research was philosophical, in that an existential perspective was sought to
develop a framework of spirituality that was able to embrace both religious and
secular context of education.
Major findings:
1.
The self is not an isolated particle or atom, but in the world that already
37
contains these other various elements.
2.
Spirituality is becoming of increasing concern for those who are experiencing
an anguish that appears to alienate the agent from having purposeful meanings
by which to live and commit him or herself.
3.
Spirituality appears to be searching an individual or community that has for
meaning and purpose for life.
4.
Becoming an authentic person can be likened to become spiritually developed.
5.
Existentialism is an appropriate perspective for formulating a universal
framework for spirituality denominational and state run educational
environments.
6.
From an existential perspective of spirituality, individuals play an active role in
giving meaning to their sense of self-identity.
7.
The human individual gain self-understanding (existentiell) by interpretation.
8.
A learner should be fully educated not only of physically, socially,
intellectually but spiritually also.
9.
Spiritual developed is scientifically aimed at the education of individual and is
not necessary concerned with changing society.
10.
Freedom is the development of the awareness that the individual learner is a
meaning maker, both of understanding and possibilities.
Gavin, S.
(2004)
Existentialism, Globalization and the Cultural
Other
14
.
This paper has examined several themes that relate to our contemporary
engagement with the Cultural Other. From the outset, the platform of existentialism
was used as a reference point to investigate globalization and the way that global
forces are leading to increased contact with Otherness. The rationale was that an
existential consideration is useful because it takes into consideration how individuals
go about constructing their lives in uncertain times world in which they live, filled
with obstacles not only from the far-reaching effects of neo-liberal globalism, but also
the way in which global forces project Otherness, especially in the form of the
Cultural Other, into the West. After considering the nature of globalization and the
38
Cultural Other, as well as some existential relationships between them, the `fear of the
unknown `was advanced as being fundamental to an explanation of the difficulty that
we have had in regarding Otherness. From this, the idea of the `known unknown' was
put forward as a way that we commonly regard Otherness through stereotyping, rather
than making a concerted effort to know and accept its substance. Finally, existential
internationalization was offered as a means by which individuals and communities
could move forward in terms of understanding Cultural Others through taking the
initial step to understand themselves. It is through deconstruction of our own identity
that we can begin to appreciate what we stand for and how we see the world,
including how and why we construct Otherness as we do.
Major findings:
1.
Existential Internationalization was offered as a mean by which individuals and
communities could move forward in terms of understanding Cultural Others
through taking the initial step to understand themselves.
2.
Curriculum should prepare people for life in a world that is changing rapidly.
3.
Existentialists have an acute interests in the individual as an `existential' as
they engage with the challenges that daily life throws before them.
4.
Existentialists maintain that human existence is `basic'. It is therefore, best
studied from onside a subject experience rather than outside.
Webster, R. (2004)
Changing Pre-Service Teachers Purpose
Through Existential Crises
15
.
This article considers changing the purposes of education held by pre-service
teachers. It argues that purposes of education are inextricably linked to life meanings
and purposes. Employing an existential perspective, mainly through Kierkegaard,
Nietzsche, Heidegger, Sartre and Morris, the fundamental beliefs that one has
regarding the meaning and purpose of life are understood to serve as the basis for
formulating purposes of education. An attempt to change these purposes is
recommended by drawing upon the existential crisis and Kierkegaard's doctrine of
'how'. Importance is placed not so much on the object or what of purposes and
39
understandings, but on how the individual relates to them.
Major findings:
1.
The existential crisis is to be an effective means for changing and developing
how a person understands the meaning of life and the process of education.
2.
Existential crisis have the potential value in enabling pre-service teachers to
develop an authentic and purposeful sense of education.
3.
To change the existing purpose of education that students have.
4.
To encourage students to become more authentically responsible and
passionately committed to more worth-while and better grounded purpose of
education.
Webster, S. (2004) An Existential Framework of Sprituality
16
.
A holistic approach to spirituality indicates a spiritual development that is
relevant for all students and not just for those who have religious background.
However, debates in England surrounding spirituality in education often in generally
locate it within the religious domain. Conceptualizing spirituality in such a way tends
to deny access to this development for non-religious contexts. Alternatively the other
approaches to spirituality have adopted non-religious view points. Such either or
approaches work against the notion that spirituality should be convinced as intrinsic
to the enterprise of education. This offers a brief view of a more elaborate existential
framework of spirituality which has been developed in order to transcend the religious
or secular divide. A short account of existential philosophy is provided before an
outline of the frame is discussed.
Major findings:
1.
Spirituality is best approached frame work because it embraces both religious
and secular perspective.
2.
Truth is merely relative.
3.
The researcher ultimately concludes that life meaning cannot be universally
assumed, but rather realized and created through the concepts like, subjectivity,
meaninglessness.
40
Kusum, L. (2005) Existentialism in Education: A Philosophical and
Psychological Analysis
17
.
The purpose of this book is to present current philosophical stream and its
contribution in bringing out the solution of the present problems of our education
system. Consolidated views of existentialism are presented in the present work with
regard to its relevance for education.
This book comprises of seven chapters, the first chapter of this book deals the
concept of education and preceding educational theories. In the second chapter the
philosophical views of different existentialists have been made familiar. Third chapter
is related to scientific outlook regarded these philosophies. Fourth chapter is
concerned with the concept of existence from psychological point of view. Fifth
chapter is related to educational implication of existentialism with regard to
epistemology, man and his values, individual freedom and authority, aims, teaching
methods and curriculum for education and the teacher pupil relationship along with a
picture of paradigm school. Sixth chapter is concerned with the critical analysis and
the seventh chapter to the relevance of existential philosophy in current Indian
situation.
Major findings:
1.
Authentic person is one who chose himself.
2.
Man is both creator and subject of his own experience.
3.
Spencer wants to give a practical knowledge by which the child can make
adjustment in all situations of life.
4.
Spencer emphasizes on the moral improvement of all the society
5.
Spencer wants to train the teacher and parents for bringing up the children in
health way.
6.
Existentialists want to develop the full potentialities of the being, for which
freedom, love, brotherhood and truth may be called the highest virtues to be
gained.
7.
Like pragmatic view they like to educate a person in living conditions so that
41
he may be learn by self experience.
8.
Existentialists emphasize subjectivity rather than objective study performed by
scientific method, because they believe that reality of existence reveals in
subjectivity.
9.
Group teaching should be avoided because it may be the cause of hindrance in
his liberty.
10.
School conditions must be prosperous in which all the facilities may be
available for them and they can learn freely and independently.
Mark, A. (2005) An Existential Appraisal of Standardized Testing
18
.
The present study was conducted to analyze an existentialist appraisal of
standardized testing with the objectives, to measure the aptitude or achievement of
the students through existentialistic frame work. For conducting this study
standardized tests are used by administrators and teachers in deciding how to plan
future instructions, determining the effectiveness of previous instruction, and to
evaluate where the organization and students population stands with regard to
curricular objectives.
Major findings:
1.
In education, existentialism places as its core a focus on the individual, seeking
out a personal understanding of the world.
2.
The existentialist ideal would provide models for student to consider for their
own potential conduct, to explore facts of their own potential rather than rote
preparation for business, trade or occupation.
3.
Existentialistic educators especially those in the fine arts where such things are
more common place will point out that other such devices have existed for a
long time.
4.
Students reflections, teachers observation, performance assessments are better
indicators of students understandings than tests that compare students ,schools,
and districts are used to identify "winners" and "losers"
5.
For existentialistic educator, the primary goal will remain that of authenticity
and relevance to the learner.
42
6.
The role as guide to of a teacher is that of rather an autocrat.
7.
Existentialist educator may acknowledge that standard testing is here for the
duration but will be reluctant to place undue emphasis on the act of `Teaching
to the test' for fear of undermining student's personal inquiry.
Stephen, M.
(2005) Heidegger and Being and Time
19
.
Heidegger is one of the most controversial thinkers of the twentieth century.
His writings are notoriously difficult; they both require and reward careful reading.
Being and Time, his first major publication, remains to his day his most influential
work.
In this book the author attempts to explore the Heidegger`s life and the
background to Being and Time, the ideas and test of Being and Time and Heidegger's
enduring influence in philosophy and our contemporary intellectual life.
Major findings:
1.
The concept of core in `Being' and `Time' serves the effort of bringing the
human closer to its `being', to its' essence'.
2.
Heidegger claims that `Being and `Time' only begins considering the
relationship between existential and essential.
3.
Heidegger believes that an investigation of human existence is not just a
convenient starting point from which to address the question of the meaning of
Being in general- it is indispensible.
Chandra, S.
(2006)
Existentialism
20
.
The author aims at presenting the Western `isms' (including existentialism) of
philosophy as well as Indian of education-beginning from the Vedas to the
contemporary philosophies. It elucidates the philosophical implications of every `ism'
and the influence of these `isms' have been studied in depth. It acquaints the readers
with the varied of aims and ideals of education, methods and principles of teaching,
role and influence of teacher.
Major findings:
43
1.
The aim of education, according to existentialism is the realization of inner
truth.
2.
Existential education should render individual subjective conscious.
3.
Existential education converts imperfection into perfection. Existential
education is child centered.
4.
In existentialism, teacher should also have an experience of self-realization so
that he may be capable of guiding the students in this process.
5.
Existentialists lay emphasis upon religious and moral education.
6.
Freedom is required for mutual development.
Gustavo, D.
(2006) Existentialism and Discourse EthicsA conceptual
Review with Special Focus to Education
21
.
Existentialism and Kantian metaphysics at first seem to be diametrically opposed
viewpoints. Their core concepts relative to human values, existence and knowledge
are viewed as oppositional. This perception can lead one to believe that any
connectivity between the two theories would be nonexistent or antithetical.
Furthermore, one would expect that any of their implications for education would
stand separate rather than as a continuum. This research challenges that separatist
viewpoint, and attempts to illuminate the connectivity between the two concepts
relative to education. Specifically, it looks at the central tenets of both theories and
demonstrates how they can be viewed as progressive, evolving mediums for the
development of the individual and of society.
Methodology
The study looks at some of the literature relevant to the philosophies and
interprets the view points of the authors relative to conceptual connectivity and its
educational implications. The theoretical background of both existentialism and
Kantian metaphysics will be reviewed via their general subjects and definitions.
Existential concepts such as anxiety and dread will be examined relative to the
individual, as will the views of the Kantian School on individual action relative to
group membership. The study focused on the Kantian perspective via the work of
44
Jurgen Habermas and has reviewed the existential views of several authors, including
Heidegger, Sartre and others.
Major findings:
1.
The study emphasizes that theoretical connectivity between divergent systems
of thought can empower the individual as a member of society without the loss
of his or her individuality.
2.
Existentialism and critical theory have been regarded as opposites due to
fundamental differences in their ideologies.
3.
To the existentialists death is the moment of absolute truth.
4.
The teachers and the students have a shared connectivity relative to the
existential moment; this moment is attained by living through the concepts:
human subjectivity, paradox and anxiety.
Sartre, J.
(2006)
Being and Nothingness
22
.
Being and Nothings is a philosophic master piece, and a document of what life
in the twentieth Century was about. Being and Nothingness is without one of the most
significant books of the twentieth Century. The central work by one of the world's
most influenced thinkers; it altered the course of Western philosophy. Its
revolutionary approach challenged all previous assumptions about the individual's
relationship with the world. Known as "The Bible of Existentialism," Its impact on
culture and literature was immediate and was felt worldwide, from Samuel Beckett's
drama of the absurd to the soul searching crises of the beat poet.
Major findings:
1.
The For-itself and the In-itself are reunited by a synthetic connection which is
nothing other than the For-itself. The For-itself, in fact, it is like a hole of being
at the heart of being.
2.
The For-itself is like a tiny nihilation which has its origin at the heart of being
and this nihilation is sufficient to cause to cause a total upheaval to happen to
the In-itself. The upheaval is the world.
3.
For-itself sole qualification comes to it's from the fact that it is the nihilation of
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