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2.10.2.2. GEMC Interaction method ... 64
2.11. Listeners Diary Analysis ... 65
2.12. Knowledge, Attitude, and Practices as a framework ... 66
HAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ... 70
3.1. Research design ... 70
3.2. Study Area ... 71
Debark woreda ... 71
Dabat woreda ... 72
Wegera woreda ... 73
3.4. Data Collection and Instrumentation ... 74
3.4.3.1. Diary to collect data ... 75
3.4.3.2. Interview to collect data ... 75
3.4.3.3. Document review to collect data ... 76
3.3 Data Analysis Procedure ... 76
3.5. Data Analysis Method ... 77
3.6. Validity ... 81
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ... 83
4. 1. Knowledge main category ... 83
4. 2. Attitude main category ... 88
4. 3. Practice main category ... 97
4.4. Result summary ... 107
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ... 113
5.1 Summary ... 113
5.2 Conclusion ... 117
5.3 Recommandations ... 118
REFERENCE ... 120
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APPENDIECS ... 135
Appendix 1 ... 135
Appendix 2 ... 136
Appendix 3 ... 137
Appendix 4 ... 138
Appendix 5 ... 139
Appendix 6 ... 140
Appendix 7 ... 141
Appendix 8 ... 142
Appendix 9 ... 143
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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
ANPPCAN-Ethiopia Association for Nation Wide Action for Prevention and Protection
Against Child Abuse and Neglect in Ethiopia
BCC Behavior Change Communication
CRC Child Right Convention
CVM- Ethiopia Comunita' Volontari Per Il Mondo (Italian Development /Volunteering)
Organization in Ethiopia
DoLSA Department of Labor and Social Affairs
EDHS Ethiopia Demographic Health Survey
EMA Education Media Agency (of Ethiopia)
ESDP Education Sector Development Policy
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization (of UN)
FDRE Federal Demographic Republic of Ethiopia
GEMC Gondar Education Media Center
HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus
HTPs Harmful Traditional Practices
ICRW International Center for research on Women
IPA Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis
KAPs Knowledge Attitude and Practices
MDGs Millennium Development Goals
NAP-GE National Action Plan for Gender Equality
NGO Non Government Organization
NPEW National Policy on Ethiopia Women
PFI Population Fund International
SCI Save the Children International
SCN Save the Children Norway
SCNE Save the Children Norway Ethiopian
UNAIDS United States Agency for International Development
UNESCO United Nations Economic Social and Culture Organization
UNFPA United Nations Population Fund
UNICEF United Nations Children Fund
WHO World Health Organization
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ABSTRACT
Many Knowledge, Attitude and Practice (KAP's) studies are used to survey and identify the
status of child marriage in Ethiopia particularly in Amhara region indicates its high prevalence
and its devastating effects on girls health causing fistula and other complications, marriage
instabilities, gender based violence and preventing from the right for education as well as other
economic and social problems which are aggravated by plenty of deep rooted cultural
misconceptions. This qualitative research aimed at to investigate the effectiveness of multimedia
messaging mainly radio broadcast and group discussion to combat child marriage resulting to
effect action in three woredas of North Gondar Zone Amhara region.
The study uses KAP's as evaluation framework and radio listening groups diary as a main data
collection tool as well as semi-structured interview and report document for triangulation purpose.
Participants of the study are 81 radio listening groups diaries are selected purposively from 312
total groups each having 21 members and for interview the available 18 grassroots workers are
included. The views and reactions of listeners written on the groups diaries grouped under the
three main categories KAP's then using inductive and deductive thematic analysis at interpretive
level sub-themes are identified.
The findings of the study revealed that under knowledge main category three sub-themes are
identified. And from the data listeners indicated their knowledge about the consequence of child
marriage and related laws, and reasons why it was practice. Moreover, they indicated they know
the benefits of child protection, equal education for both girls and boys, and the role of children
to combat child marriage. Regarding attitude change five sub-themes are identified describing the
perceived benefits and harmfulness of child marriage, intention to abandon it, the belief of
appropriate age challenges in combating child marriage. Under practice category seven sub-
themes are identified which indicates the cancellation of large number of child marriage plans,
penalties due to not obeying the law, a number of reports to legal bodies, measures taken by
different actors, decision made pro and against child marriage and collaborations effectiveness to
combat child marriage. Besides one report of early sexual intercourse some negative actions
recorded are the presence of marriage arrangement deals and partners choice by parents.
Based on the study findings some recommendations were drown on: the effectiveness of KAP's
as a framework and radio listening groups diary as data collection to evaluate media interventions;
multimedia messaging like radio broadcast together with listening group discussion for effective
and efficient method for educating the people for behavior change; collaborative action together
with local media is very effective strategy in combating child marriage and to bring the desired
change at community level; protection, support and encouragement to victims of child marriage,
and measures to be taken to sustain and improve the observed changes against child marriage.
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1. Introduction
Desmond Tutu the retired South African Anglican Church Archbishop and social right activist in
the website called http://theealders.org in September 2011 posted the following blog entitled a
Message from Desmond Tutu for men and boys;
A few months ago, in Northern Ethiopia, I met a group of young women who had
been married around the age of 10 or 12. Many of them had their first children at 13
or 14. It was shocking for me to realize that there are millions of girls around the
world who suffer the same fate every year.
I have to confess that I was simply not aware of the scale and impact of child
marriage. 10 million girls a year, 25,000 girls a day, are married without any say in
the matter, to men who are often much older than they are. These girls almost always
drop out of school to attend to household chores, and when they become young
mothers themselves face serious dangers of injury and even death in pregnancy and
childbirth. Child marriage robs girls of their childhood, of their basic rights to
education, security and health(FYI, 2011).
Child marriage, generally defined as marriage before age 18, is not limited to any one country or
continent(United Nations, 2000). However, Clifton and Frost (2011) in their research indicated
that in the last decade, 58 million young women in developing countries--one in three--have
been married before the age of 18, many against their will and in violation of international laws
and conventions on women's rights. The document also stated that according to new figures, one
in nine girls, or 15 million, have been forced into marriage between the ages of 10 and 14, with
limited education and economic opportunities, child brides are often condemned to a life of
poverty, social isolation, and powerlessness, violations on their human rights, health, and well-
being. According to WHO Media Center (2013) ending child marriage is closely related to efforts
to Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 3, 4, and 5 i.e., promote gender equality , to reduce
child mortality and to improve maternal health respectively. The WHO media center commented
that the continued occurrence of child marriage has hindered the achievement of these MDGs,
especially in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa.
International Center for Research on Women (ICRW) mentioned the reason why countries with
the highest prevalence of child marriage are concentrated in Western and Sub-Saharan Africa is
due to population size, and the largest number of child brides reside in South Asia(ICRW, 2013).
Ten countries have particularly high prevalence rates, with one-half to three-fourths of girls
marrying before their 18th birthday. Among them according to UNICEF (2013) Statistics and
Monitoring Section, Division of Policy and Strategy Ethiopia has fifths rank with 673 thousands
Women age 20 to 24 who were married before 15. Based on the research conducted including
Ethiopia, where 49 percent of girls are married by age 18, but in the Amhara region, 74 percent
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are married by age 18 and half of all girls are married before their 15th birthday(Erulkar and
Muthengi, 2009). Moreover, a study by the same researchers in 2004 in two districts of Amhara
found that 14 percent of girls were married before age 10. Generally, girls living in rural areas
marry earlier than girls in urban areas(Erulkar and Muthengi, 2004).
Young brides, even below 10 years of age, are married off to adolescent boys and thus the cycle
of ignorance, poverty, health hazards continue. Even in the present times there are remote places
where people are uneducated and are not equipped with even a little education and knowledge to
break a tradition which brings miseries to many of little girls in their land. However, many study
results show that support of the community on the eradication of Child marriage and abduction is
by far better and higher than other HTP's. It was identified that an individual abducting a girl
Child knows the negative effect of his act on the daughter. But there is a gap that the community
should know that all acts they perform on Child marriage related issue are illegal. Using various
communication channels to reach communities with messages about the importance of ending
child marriage is crucial to raise awareness and change norms. For example, mass media can be
an effective tool for educating families and communities about the harmful consequences of child
marriage as well as for getting the word out that there has been a policy change regarding age of
marriage(Gage, 2009).
Although awareness raising activities are strengthen by government and civic societies, many
people lack clear information and positive attitudinal changes to stop Child marriage. To raise
awareness Gondar Education Media Center (GEMC) in partnership with SCI has been
broadcasting culturally sensitive radio program for over 10 years on Harmful Tradition Practices
(HTP's) including Child Marriage issues.
A baseline survey conducted by SCI on three woredas i.e., Debark, Dabat and Wogera for the
project called Combating Child Marriage in North Gondar zone recommended radio education
broadcast combined with listeners group discussion as one of intervention activities. So that
GEMC executed a two and half year media activities including the weekly radio program having
the same program name Bisrat with similar activities but more focusing on Child marriage and
related issues where this study was conducted. The program broadcasted every Sunday for 45
minutes from 10:30 11:15 AM aiming for children and adult targeted organized listeners.
As stated in the project proposal the three main focuses of Bisrat Radio program to Combat Child
Marriage is;
x Primarily on child marriage with emphasis on the negative impacts of child
marriage in culturally approachable manner. As studies indicate the majority (above
80%) are aware that it is a crime, but keep practicing it, which is why the need to
focus on awareness creation on the negative impact on children and their families, and
the community at large. And promote the men and boys role for abandoning the
practice as they are part of the decision making process, and the ones who are getting
married to children below the age of 18 years.
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x Integrate issues of adolescent reproductive health rights and Reproductive Health
education to bring about practice change through information sharing. Because one of
the major reasons for parents to give their female children for marriage is forced rape
and pre-marital pregnancy.
x Promotion of girl's education as part of the prevention of child marriage is one of
core objective for this project by SCI. It is also an important intervention for
empowering girls to protect and decide for themselves, through insuring their
empowerment and independence(GEMC, 2010a).
1.2. Problem statement
Media intervention is a powerful strategy for increasing awareness, knowledge, positive attitude
and practice. In the present times many community level intervention projects baseline surveys
documents recommends media components as a means to achieve the desired behavioral changes.
For instance the baseline study of the project recommends designing culturally appropriate
strategies through intensive community conversations and dialogues, visual and audio education
materials and radio programs (SCN,2011). However, the effects of media on KAPs are less
investigated.
Save the Children International in Ethiopia in collaboration with partners from the year 2011 to
2013 implemented "Combating Child Marriage" project in North Gondar Zone (Wegera, Dabat
and Debark Woredas) do have media component (i.e., a weekly radio education called Bisrat,
radio manual, and face to face group discussion) to change the existing low level of knowledge,
attitude and practice (i.e., KAPs) about child marriage. To see the change in behavior due to the
intervention activities the baseline document recommends mid-term and final evaluations using
predetermined objective indicators. However, the impacts of the multimedia intervention
components are less evaluated.
Ignoring to evaluate the specific effects of media components in any intervention will lead to
inconsistence and distorted overall result, which intern inhibits to clearly find out key
achievements of the goals of the intervention projects. Doing appropriate evaluation to see the
media activities impact to attain the desired behavior change could help the actors participating in
the project learn every components of the activities and better implement the project next time.
The present study aspires to explore the effects of the multimedia activities in contributing
towards changing target audience knowledge, attitude and practice (KAPs) about child marriage
in the project area i.e., Debark, Dabat and Wogera woredas of North Gondar zone found in
Amhara region in Ethiopia. To do this the researcher carried out radio listening group diary
analysis and used it to find out the trends of KAPs change and give possible recommendations.
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1.3. Purpose and significance of the study
Purpose of the study
This multimedia intervention project with radio messaging, print manual, face to face listeners
group discussion, and interaction with media center to serve as a forum for discussion aim to
change the target people's behavior. The question is if these multi-media activities do impacted
the KAPs how it happens?
The purpose of this study is to identify changes on target audience by analyzing their reflection
statements on the diary book that is provided to them. The study tries to answer the following
questions divided in to the three main categories:
Knowledge gained-
x What important information's do participants get to change their views and
opinions?
x What participants feel from dialogue between listening members and with
community members?
Attitude changes-
x What informed believe changes towards child marriage and related issues are
identified?
x What interactions are identified due to shared stories?
Practice done-
x What practical actions achieved from the creation of radio listening forum for
education?
x What exemplary activities are identified so that others can follow them?
x What kinds of collaborations resulting actions are observed due to the
presence of multimedia intervention?
Significance of the study
This study has significant contribution for media practitioners and social development initiatives
project implementers. The study gives a feedback about which group of the target audience do
show what positive change. It give light to use diary analysis method as a means of monitoring
progress and evaluating audience participation as a part of solution for social and health problems
at community level. In addition to this it attempts to show the possibility of using KAPs as a
frame work for evaluating impacts of media intervention. More over it combines KAPs
framework and radio diary analysis method to get a better result to evaluate the impacts of media
intervention.
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1.4. Objectives of the Study
General objective
The general purpose of this study is to explore the effects of multimedia on KAPs regarding child
marriage.
Specific Objectives
Specific objectives of the present study :-
x To explore the change in feeling, views and opinions on the Child Marriage and related
issues of the target population due to their exposure to multimedia intervention.
x To examine the importance of radio listening group as a forum for discussion, initiate
dialogue within the community members and improve learning from each other by
discussion in group to solve their problem.
x To investigate the presence of change of practice among the community members towards
the abandonment of child marriage and improved reproductive health practice and girls
education, in target woreds.
1.5. Assumption
Karen, Barbara & Viswanath (2008) citing Blumer & Katz (1974) stated that elaborated media
effects research should also looks reactions of audience to media, because audience are not
regarded as passive recipient, but also as active seekers and users of information. Though the
research presents no specific hypotheses to be tested, there are several assumptions which the
researcher expected to be validated by the result of listener's diary analysis. These were;
x Fundamentally, the mass media are "message multipliers" channels, which increase the
number and speed massages sent and the size of audience reached.
x Any message to have an effect, must receive attention, interpretation, acceptance and
disposition.
x Radio as a delivery system of message is very useful media because; it is wide spread and
democratic, it can entertain and inform at the same time, it can establish a uniform
standard of excellence and it is cost-effective.
x When changing behavior, the individual, community, or institution goes through a series
of steps--from unaware, to concerned, to sustained behavior change.
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1.6. Limitations and Delimitation of the Study
Limitations
x The diary analysis methodology requires the availability of well written diaries. So that as
much as possible the researcher included all those diaries which are readable and
excluded those who are not neat to read.
x Another problem is the absence of literatures done using a diary analysis method in
general and group listeners diary analysis. Because of this other types of qualitative and
quantitative studies conducted on the area are reviewed.
x The diary data are self-report which are venerable to inconsistency and bias. But by
increasing the sample size and triangulating the data with interviews and documents the
correctness of the information.
Delimitations
The main study participants are 81 Bisrat radio listening group members organized in North
Gondar zone three woredas namely Debark, Dabat and Wogera woredas selected by the
researcher from 312 groups. They are children, adult men and women mostly living in rural area
where many of them are not literate. In adult radio listening group there are very few peoples
who read and write, these individuals are chosen to serve as secretaries and group facilitators. But
in children listening group many of them are able to read and write. So that everything written in
the diaries indicates individuals as well as group views. The other informants are social agents
and grassroots workers they do participated in the intervention as a supervisor of the listening
activities. The ideas categorized in to knowledge, attitude and practices then sub categorized into
main ideas within these three for analysis. The results of this study will not be generalizable to
other listeners who do not organized in to radio listening groups.
1.7. Definition of Terms
Child: The term child, as defined by the Ethiopian law refers to any person who has not attained
the full age of 18 years.
Child marriage: In this study the term child marriage refers to marriage concluded between
female and male in which case one or both have not attained the full age of 18 years.
Radio listening groups: a group of peoples(adult men, women and children) around 21 in
number who meet every Sunday to listen radio broadcast and discuss on the issue then reach on
decision actions.
Radio education: educational radio program which is produced and broadcasted based on per-
designed specification manual for known target audience called listening groups.
Zone, Woreda, and Kebele: Ethiopia follows the federal system and is divided into two
chartered cities and nine ethnically based administrative regions, one of which is the Amhara
Region.
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x Zone is a clustered government administrative system within each Region. Within Zones
there are Woredas.
x Woreda represent district level government administration structure within a Zone.
x Kebele these are village level government administrative structures, within Woredas.
Definitions of Amharic terminologies:
x Bisrat in Amharic means good news
x Arata abedari in Amharic means illegal loan sharks
x Birr is the unit of currency in Ethiopia
x Kale Awadi is religious manuscript written in Geez
x Diqala mean rootless/fatherless child(UN Women,2012)
x Komo Ker is a person who is unwanted by any one and hopeless (UN Women, 2012)
x Sama is a plant with small stingy spikes which cause painful skin rush
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CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITRATURE
This chapter contains the sociocultural reasons as well as effects of child marriage and theoretical
framework which is central concept for conducting the study. It includes the concept and purpose
what child marriage and why it is practice; prevalence rate, cultural misconceptions; problems
that arise due to child marriage and action that can be taken to stop it. In the last part theoretical
models as well as Media intervention models and frameworks for the study.
2.1. Child Marriage
From the Birth, marriage and death Smile (2011) says; are the three key events in most people's
lives only one marriage is a matter of choice. He added the right to exercise that choice was
recognized as a principle of law even in Roman times and has long been established in
international human rights instruments.
According to UN Population Fund Salih (2013) and WHO Media Center (2013) stated that more
than 140 million girls will become child brides between 2011 and 2020 which is an estimated
14.2 million young girls marrying too young every year or 39,000 daily. These documents further
stated of 140 million girls who will marry before they are 18 and 50 million will be under the age
of 15. In Ethiopia Amhara region child marriage rate is among the highest in the world and many
young girls whose opportunities and childhood were cut short and become wife then mother-but
not yet an adult-whose life often remains invisible to others(Gaynair, 2013). In the research
conducted by Population council (2010) the highest rate of very early marriage occurred in
Amhara region with 52 percent married by age 15, where 44 percent of them did not want to get
married at the time they did(p.34 &35).
For both girls and boys, Child marriage has profound physical, intellectual, psychological and
emotional impacts, cutting off educational opportunity and chances of personal growth(Smile,
2011) Child brides often show signs symptomatic of sexual abuse and post-traumatic stress such
as feelings of hopelessness, helplessness and severe depression(ICRW,2013).
2.2. Prevalence, cause and its Consequences of Child Marriage
2.2.1. Prevalence of Child marriage
According to ICRW (2013) one third of the world's girls are married before the age of 18 and 1
in 9 are married before the age of 15. This document also indicated in 2010, 67 million women
20-24 around the world had been married before the age of 18. If present trends continue, 142
million girls will be married before their 18th birthday over the next decade. That's an average of
14.2 million girls each year(ICRW, 2013). According to UNICEF State of the World's Children,
2013 document Child marriage prevalence is defined as the percentage of women 20-24 years old
who were married or in union before age 18. According to WHO Media Center (2013), the 10
countries with the highest rates of child marriage are: Niger, 75%; Chad and Central African
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Republic, 68%; Bangladesh, 66%; Guinea, 63%; Mozambique, 56%; Mali, 55%; Burkina Faso
and South Sudan, 52% and Malawi 50%. Based on this Ethiopia has the rank of 18 out of 20 high
prevalent countries having 41 percent prevalence rate(UNICEF, 2013). The prevalence rate of
child marriage in Ethiopia varies from region to region. Berihun & Aspen (2009) citing a survey
conducted by the Ethiopian Committee against Harmful Traditional Practices (WAT 1992:9),
mentioned that the average age of marriage is 14.2 years for 82% of the girls in the Amhara
region, 79% in Tigray, and 64% in Benishangul-Gumuz. The survey result of PFI- Ethiopia (2006)
indicates fifteen percent of ever-married women in Amhara were married before the age of 12
years. The mean age at first marriage was 14.5 years, and about 44 percent of urban and 53
percent of rural ever-married women were first married between 12 and 15 years(PFI- Ethiopia,
2006). The survey also revealed with no variation by place of residence nearly three-fourths of
the ever-married women had married men older than themselves, and the age difference was 10
years or more for half of the women married to older men.
2.2.2. The consequences of early marriage
Many married girl children described painful, unwanted first sexual encounters with their
husbands; many didn't understand what was happening(Gaynair, 2013). According to Population
council (2010) study 35% of the total respondents experienced first sex before they had their first
menstrual bleeding which is the result of force. The document also states that 99 percent of girls
married before age 10 and 90 percent of them had arranged marriage. Particularly in rural areas
where 82 percent of marriage were arranged by families; so that they don't know their husbands
until their wedding day. According to Erulkar and Muthengi (2004) over 66 percent had not
reached puberty by that encounter.
According to PFI Ethiopia (2006) survey detailed information on the causes and consequences of
early marriage was collected from a sample of 2,072 females aged 12-49 years and from focus
group discussions and key informant interviews in Amhara region the reported consequences of
early marriage include:
Instability of Marriage: The region is characterized with high incidence of
marriage instability (27 percent in urban and 19 percent in rural were divorces), and
the main reason is often attributed to early marriage. In 38 percent of cases "too
young for marriage" was cited as the reason for dissolution of the first marriage.
Poor health: 8.4 percent of women who were married under the age of 14 reported
sexual and sex organ related problems.
Fistula and related problems: Almost all respondents in the qualitative survey
reported knowing of at least one case of fistula in their lifetime; some reported
knowing of up to five fistula cases.
Too Many Children: Women married before age 15 had an average of 5 children,
those who married between 15 and 17 years had 4.2, and women who married after
age 18 had 3.1.
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Main reason for school dropout and less education: Over 78 percent of never
married girls under the age of 24 were attending school, as compared to 8.9 percent
among the currently married girls. Among those out of school, 28 percent cited
marriage and 19 percent cited child bearing as the main reason for not attending
school.
Impact on the well-being of children: Early marriage is detrimental to the children
of the marriage, when the mother is neither psychologically or physiologically
ready to care for her children.
Women's inequality: Early marriage limits female educational opportunity,
thereby reducing their employment opportunity and economic independence. The
study has further confirmed that victims of early marriage are vulnerable to gender
based violence, high fertility, marital instabilities, and to reproductive health related
complications. Women's lack of decision-making power in their families and
communities is exacerbated by the inherent power imbalance between a young girl
and her husband, who is often 10 years or more her senior.
In North Gondar zone, 2011 National Follow up Survey of Harmful Traditional Practices showed
that 44.2 per cent of girls are married before the age of 15(UN Women,2012). In the baseline
survey document SCN (2011); that is conducted by Save the Children Norway in 2010 the
researchers find out that; in 1991, 80.6 % of women and 25.5 % of men married before they reach
age 18. After 2002, the prevalence of men marrying before 18 years of age has reduced to 3.6 %.
The document also indicates the prevalence of women who married under 18 years of age was
53.8 %, showing only a slight improvement(SCN, 2011). The finding indicates that only 53.6%
of the respondents had heard information on child marriage related issues. Regarding knowledge
about Child marriage parents were less informed than their children, and adolescent girls were
found relatively less informed that boys.
2.2.3. Cultural misconceptions are main causes of Child marriage
Patriarchy and traditional norms and practices of discrimination are one of the main drivers. No
one religious affiliation was associated with child marriage, according to a 2007 ICRW study.
However a variety of religions are associated with child marriage in countries throughout the
world(ICRW,2013). There are research findings that indicate religious peoples do participated in
influencing the community members. For instance, Berihune & Aspen (2009) mentioned the
views of one local priest called Ababaw said rural people have no good knowledge of life; we
have a problem to live according to plan and he also further said that girls are not allowed to
marry under the age of fifteen (note the age) since the time of Adam and Eve. In most regions
and cultures of the Ethiopian society, girls who pass the age of 15 unmarried are socially
degraded and dubbed Komo Ker- an offending and humiliating Amharic term meaning "a person
who is unwanted by any one and hopeless"(UN Women, 2012). For fear of this social stigma,
parents often decide to give their children for marriage at a very early age.
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In many parts of Ethiopia even though marriage of child girls as early as five years old seems
horrific, and it might be difficult to understand that they are practice with good intention(SCNE,
2005). The document added that a girl can be engaged at a very early age, between 4-5 years or
even in womb; though the marriage ceremony could follow soon, the bride does not go to her
bridegroom's home until she reaches the age of 10 to 13 years or younger. In some parts of the
country, the practice is becoming increasingly covert and disguised with other types of festivities
for fear of the legal accountabilities(UN Women, 2012). Sometimes the girls stay with her
parents or family-in-law until her reach of `maturity', which is 10 to 13 years(SCNE, 2005). The
in-laws have the cultural obligation to protect the child from sexual intercourse, a tradition which
is called `keeping but not touching'. Once married, a young girl is often separated from her
family to become a junior member of her husband's family. Her movements may be restricted
and her education ended.
The research conducted in North Gondar three project woredas (i.e., Debark, Dabat, Wogera)
SCN (2011) indicated that among the respondents, 42.6% of men, 38.7% of women, and 56% of
male youth reported that they were aware of the existence of a legal minimum age for marriage.
Of those who expressed knowing the minimum legal age, only half of them were able to state age
18 as the legal minimum age of marriage for girls. Most respondents of the research SCN (2011)
saw that appropriate age of marriage for girls was 14 years while it was 18 years for boys. In the
base line study SCN (2011) more than two-third of the adolescent and 80% of the parents (both
males and females) still have in their mind that child marriage has some advantages/benefits for
girls and the family in general.
Berihun & Aspen (2009) points to the fact that historically, Ethiopian royalty married for creating
alliances by marrying daughters or sisters of provincial rulers, both Christian and Muslims.
Berihun & Aspen further elaborated their idea that women of noble families could be married as
early eight or nine years old. May be marriage to create a bond between families trace back to
follow what the former leaders was doing. That is indicated in many research findings that major
importance is creating a bond with the bridegroom's family, as well as ensuring the girl marries
while she has her virginity(PFI-Ethiopia, 2006). Because of this child marriage is practiced by
many parents to prevent their children from having pre-marital sex which brings loss of virginity
since a girl who has lost her virginity before marriage is very much disgraced and brings shame
on her family. Moreover, there is an old traditional concern that a girl will become too old for
marriage, which will represent a failure on the part of her parents(PFI-Ethiopia, 2006). The worst
of all shames comes if the girl who had sex before marriage gives birth to a child. The child born
under such a situation is dubbed "Diqala" mean rootless/fatherless child(UN Women,2012).
Therefore, most parents wouldn't dare to live with such a demeaning social stigma; rather they
prefer to give their child for marriage as early as possible. Many poor families choose for
marrying their underage girls with an intention of economic gain from the gifts given by relatives,
neighbors and friends at the marriage ceremony and dowry. The practice serves also for family
extension and continuation and social pride, as many parents want to see their children married at
a very early age and have grand children before they pass away. Likewise, parents' need of social
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fame and prestige which comes from organizing a overgenerous wedding festivity and inviting
many people for this event is seen to be a key factor for child marriage. In some parts of the
country, parents force their children to marry early for the purpose of strengthening ties with
families thought to have influential advantage, either in terms of wealth or social status.
2.2.4. Education and Women
The more girls become educated Ayele (2007), indicated the better they understood the problem
and also they have to come to challenge the various socio-cultural constraints passed on them.
But researches indicate that married girls receive little or no schooling. The house hold task
heavily burdened girls so that it takes their time so that they are not able to do their homework
and study at home. Because of this if they become late comers or absentees these eventually
make them dropout of school. Many young wives in rural Amhara at present time are dropped out
of schools soon after they wed and their reasons are due to the daily routines of fetching water
and firewood, cooking, cleaning, and if mothers minding a child(Ayele, 2007 and Gaynair, 2013).
Girls in Amhara region who marry young tend to drop out of school and are more likely to bear
children during adolescence, thus effectively ensuring that they will not return to school or
develop other work skills(PFI-Ethiopia,2006). Seventy-three percent of married women have
received no education, compared to 45 percent of never-married women(EDHS, 2005). Those
women with no education as Population council (2010) study showed were significantly more
likely to experience early marriage, with 38 percent married by age 15(p.34). In SCN (2011)
survey Child marriage was one of the major causes for school dropout of girls in the study
woredas. The other reason is rape and sexual assault, sometimes even by close relatives, that
hinder girls education Ayele (2007), says these makes them ashamed and demoralized so that
their academic performance declined afterwards.
2.2.5. Large age differences between married couples has effect on girls life
As a result of early marriage, large spousal age differences are common, which usually limits
married girls' autonomy and decision-making ability. The younger a bride is, the greater the age
difference between her and her spouse, promising disparate roles in decision making. The mean
age difference between spouses in Ethiopia is 10.1 years(PFI-Ethiopia, 2006). Many girls, and a
smaller number of boys, enter marriage without any chance of exercising their right to choose
simply forced into marriage at a very Child age by their parent's decisions(Smile, 2011). Lavish
gifts and enticing the girl child and her parents with promises of various opportunities are
becoming common ways of persuasion these days(UN Women, 2012). Since the girl is too young
and definitely uneducated to even know her rights or what is good for her, she is in no position to
make any decisions about her life, spacing of babies, food, rest or sexual preference(Zhang,
2008). According to population council study on the average married females were 7 years
younger than their husbands where the younger the girl was when she married, the larger the age
difference with her spouse(Population council, 2010, p. 35). Gaynair (2013) said that married
25
adolescent girls are about 60 million in Ethiopia, among these over 5,000 child brides in Amhara
region are seeking health and economic needs.
2.2.6. Mother girls are vulnerable to poor health outcomes
Once a girl is married Salih (2013), she is at greater risk of domestic violence, more likely to get
pregnant early, more likely to die during pregnancy, and more vulnerable to HIV. According to
ICRW (2013) girls younger than 15 are five times more likely to die in childbirth than women in
their 20s. Pregnancy is the leading cause of death worldwide for girls ages 15 to 19(ICRW, 2013).
If pregnancy continues due to lack of nutritious food and adequate rest leads to a number of
complications. It so happens that by the time the girl reaches her twenties, she is already spent
and looks close to forty years of age due to multiple pregnancies, household work and inadequate
nutrition which take their toll on her(Zhang, 2008). She may be subjected to sexual coercion and
expected to prove her fertility by bearing children at an unsafe age. One result of this may be
obstetric fistula, a serious medical condition in which a hole develops between the bladder,
vagina, and sometimes rectum of a young girl, causing physical suffering, humiliation, and social
ostracism(UN Women, 2012).
In the SCN (2011) survey conducted in the three project woredas (Debark, Dabat, and Wogera)
one of the major child protection concerns in the studied districts where that in one out of ten
households there was a female member suffering from pregnancy and birth related complications,
which were identified as "suspected fistula" by the respondents. Absence of effective and timely
medical treatment for suspected fistula cases and other teenage pregnancy and birth related
complications at the woredas level made girls more vulnerable to further complications.
Prolonged and obstructed labor can result in obstetric fistulas, which disproportionately afflict
very young and first-time mothers. Population Council (2004) report estimated that 9,000 new
fistulas occur annually in Ethiopia. Fistula condition leaves girls and women continually leaking
urine and/or feces, frequently leading to abandonment by partners, friends, and family.
2.2.7. HIV/AIDS and child marriage
A combination of biological, socio-economic, cultural, and political factors put young women at
greater risk of HIV infection than males. A girl is physiologically more vulnerable to contracting
HIV/AIDS, as her vagina is not well lined with protective cells and her cervix may be penetrated
easily. A global analysis of the epidemic shows that the prevalence of HIV infection is highest in
women aged 1524 and peaks in men between five to ten years later(PFI-Ethiopia, 2006).
Child brides face a higher risk of contracting HIV because they often marry an older man with
more sexual experience. Girls ages 15 19 are 2 to 6 times more likely to contract HIV than boys
of the same age in sub-Saharan Africa(ICRW,2013). Most girls who end up in divorce and are
obliged to join their parents, especially those having a child, are often isolated and degraded by
their family and the community(UN Women,2012). Some are forced to flee to towns where they
26
end up as domestic house workers or commercial sex workers, becoming vulnerable to different
forms of violence and abuse, and subsequent exposure to different sexually transmitted infections
including HIV and AIDS. Population council (2004) reported that once married, a girl may be
subjected to sexual coercion and expected to prove her fertility by bearing children at an unsafe
age; her risk of contracting HIV is higher than for unmarried girls of the same age. These factors
reinforce the "feminization" of poverty, and its continuation from one generation to the
next(Population Council, 2004).
2.2.8. Policy, regulations and Child Marriage
Whether it happens to a girl or a boy, Child marriage is a violation of human rights. The right to
free and full consent to a marriage is recognized in the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human
Rights (UDHR) and in many subsequent human rights instruments consent that cannot be `free
and full' when at least one partner is very immature(Smile, 2011). According to Article 144 of
the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women (UN, 1994), gender-based
violence is "...violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological
harm or suffering of women, including threats of such acts, coercion, or arbitrary deprivations of
liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life." Early marriage creates a number of
conditions that expose married girls to poverty and violence. Men's control over key resources,
social isolation, and the low socio-economic status and dependency of women predispose married
girls to violence and poverty (Heise & Ellsberg, 1999). Some examples of gender violence that
can be exacerbated by early marriage include domestic violence, rape, and emotional abuse.
The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Constitution (1995) Article 9:4 provides that all
international treaties ratified by the country are integral parts of the law of the land. Fikremarkos
(2008) stated that Ethiopia has signed several international commitments such as ... CRC,
Beijing Platform of Action, Convention on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, Convention
Against Torture, and African Charter. In Ethiopia there are plenty of policies and legal
frameworks that have statements about women issues.
The National Policy on Ethiopian Women(NPEW) adopted in 1993 was the first policy document
that contains statements which promote and protect the rights of women and also declared the
government commitment to accept the international laws regarding women and girls right.
Fikermarkos (2009) NPEW strategies major focus area Fikemarkos added that includes issues of
participation equality of women, harmful traditional practice(HTP's), importance of creating
awareness about and access to basic health care and reproductive health information.
Fikermarkos (2009) mentioned about Cultural Policy of Ethiopia (1997) that it address women
issues focusing particularly to step by step abolish traditional harmful practice, ensure women
active participation in all cultural activities equally and change negative attitudes towards women
participation. Ethiopia has launched the National Action Plan for Gender Equality (NAP-GE-
2006-2010) Ministry of Women's Affairs (2006 b) which is an important strategic document for
achieving gender equality and mainstreaming it in all sector activities. The Ethiopian Women
27
Development Package developed by Ministry of Women's Affairs, (2006 a) emphasized the
equal participation of women in economic, political and social issues in rural and urban places. It
addresses women participation in education, improve their health, eliminate harmful practices, it
ensure full implementation of the family law and legal protection of women(Fikremarkos, 2008).
The National Population Policy of Ethiopia, NPPE (1993) is another policy document that has got
a lot of statements which identified the lower status of economic, social and political participation
and mentioned actions to be taken to empower women and enhance their involvement. The
Ethiopia Education and Training Policy (1994) address gender issues by putting statement for
recruitment of more female teachers, give priority and financial support to female students.
Fikremarkos also described another document which stress women issue is the 1997 Education
Sector Development Policy (ESDP) among many objectives three of them directly mentioned
girls issues which are; to increase 45%, to reform the curricula to make it relevant and gender
sensitive, and to reduce the dropout and repetition rate of girls by half.
The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE, 1995) constitution Article 34:1 declared
that men and women have equal rights while entering, during, and at the time of the termination
of marriage without distinction of race, nation, nationality or religion for those who have attained
the marriage age defined by law. FDRE Article 35:4 recognizes the effects of past discrimination
against women and entitles them to affirmative measures to provide special attention to women,
so as to enable them to compete and participate, on the basis of equality, with men in social and
economic life as well as in public and private institutions(Fikremarkos, 2008).
Ethiopia has a new Family Code enacted in 2001 that guarantees women equality in marriage and
puts the legal age at marriage for both sexes at 18 years old compared to 15 in previous
years(FDRE,2000). However, the practice still persists mainly due to poor enforcement and lack
of knowledge, only 50 per cent of the population is aware of the existence of a legal age for
marriage(UN Women,2012). According to the "Essential Conditions of Marriage" (Section 2,
Article 6-16) of the Revised Family Code (Proclamation of 2000), Article 7 specifies the legal
marriage age of both boys and girls as follows: "Neither a man nor a woman who has not attained
the full age of eighteen years shall conclude marriage." Despite this law, the country is known for
one of the most severe crises of child marriage in the world.
Regarding knowledge about the legal issues the survey SCN (2011), shows that it was 44.2% of
men and 34.4% of women who expressed that they knew the existence of the criminal code
against child marriage. Among those who expressed knowing the criminal law most lack the
details of what it contained. The study also revealed major gap on the enforcement of law. It was
only 30% of the men and 27% of women who could recall at least one community member who
was punished due to arranging child marriage, or canceled arranged child marriage due to
interference by the government and other community initiatives. Moreover it was reported that
enforcement of the legal age of marriage by authorities was inadequate(PFI-Ethiopia, 2006).
28
Quoting from The African Child Policy Forum (2007:71) Berihun & Aspen (2009) stated that in
Ethiopian minimum age for marriage (18 years) corresponds with provisions in the Revised Penal
Code, Article 627, "that penalize the sexual abuse of children ... with imprisonment from 13 to
25 years for a man guilty of sexual activity with a child below the age of thirteen, and 15 years
imprisonment where the child is between the age of thirteen and eighteen".
Fikremarkos (2008) stated that Amhara, Tigray, and Oromia regional states of Ethiopia adopted
the revised family law and abolished most discriminatory actions. The Amhara region Family law
gives certain loop of hole so that people can exercise child marriage. The family code of Amhara
Region states in article 18.1 that "neither a man nor a woman has not attained the full age of
eighteen years shall conclude marriage". However, Article 18.2 grants special rights to courts and
states that "Justice Bureau of the Region may, on the application of the future spouses, or the
parents or guardian of one of them, for serious cause, grant dispensation of not more than two
years"(Amhara National Regional State, 2003). But seriousness of causes is determined upon the
application of the parents or guardians, which in essence is a contradiction in terms. Berihun &
Aspen (2009) arguments about early marriage is the parents are considered as helping
wrongdoers to the illegal marriage arrangements and one function of the new law is that
authorities interfere with the decisions of the parents and guardians.
The Ethiopian revised criminal code of the May 2005 includes new and revised provisions
relevant to the protection of women's human rights in general. For instance revised criminal code
(The Revised Penal Code, 2004) criminalize: most forms of violence against women and girls
including rape (Article 620-628); physical violence with marriage or in an irregular union
(Article 564); and early marriage (Article 649). Although legal frameworks provide several rights
relevant to women because of several reasons they are not exercised fully by the people as well as
the law enforcing bodies(Fikremarkos, 2008). Fikremarkos further explained three problems that
influence girls not to report their right violation:
"One problem is there is a great trend to force women and girls to solve their
disputes through traditional mechanism by those elderly most of the time who do not
treat women and men equally. The second point is lack of awareness about the legal
protections of women on the part of the victims and community. The third but not
the last point is women and girls do not usually report incidents of violations of their
rights but rather they keep, shame, fear of revenge and lack of confidence in the
legal system".
However, according to Helland (2004), people in Northern Ethiopia ... are generally law- abiding
in order to be effective in stopping child marriage legal regulations must also be followed up with
legal control.
29
2.3. Steps taken to Stop child marriage
In general, early marriage of girls greatly affects the realization and enjoyment of virtually all of
their rights. The imposition of marriage on children or adolescents who are in no way ready for
married life deprives them of freedom, opportunities for personal development, health and well-
being, education, and participation in civic life.
Ethiopia accepted international laws as well as developed local legal frameworks and
implementing multiple intervention strategies including making partnership with international
organizations to stop child marriage. One of such initiatives that Ethiopia accepted is Beijing
Platform of Action United Nations, (1996) which is the cooperation and collaboration of GOs and
NGO's to gender mainstreaming, advocacy, capacity building and creating grassroots women
movements. Based on this many international and local NGOs are involved in different
intervention activities including research, training and preventive measures. NPPE also
encourage GO' and NGO's involved in social and development programs that they incorporate
gender and population content in their activities(Fikremarkos, 2008). WHO Media Center (2013),
states that despite the fact that 158 countries have set the legal age for marriage at 18 years, laws
are rarely enforced since the practice of marrying young children is upheld by tradition and social
norms. Salih (2013), coating UNICEF advisor Malhotra said that laws alone have proven
ineffective at preventing child marriage for instance countries like Bangladesh, India, and
Indonesia have had minimum age of marriage laws for decades but still have under18 age rates of
girls married 66.2, 44.5, and 22 percent respectively. Research findings indicate a significant
number of persons who strongly disapprove of the child right violation practice publicly, but still
follow the practice in their homes(PFI-Ethiopia, 2006). The study SCN (2011) also dismissed
lack of knowledge of the consequences of early marriage as a reason for its continued practice.
The UN Secretary General Ban Ki-Moon on WHO Media Center (2013), say that " I urge
governments, community and religious leaders, civil society, the private sector, and families-
especially men and boys- to do their part to let girls be girls, not brides". Therefore, coordinated
collaborative home grown measures should be implemented to mobilize communities change
those norms and to stop it.
Although Economist Magazine (2013), said it is much harder to change norms and practice on
societal and cultural level than to adapt or conform to them, particularly with regards to
relationships and health people in Ethiopia are open to change. This change in Ethiopia observed
especially when changes are beneficial to their children(SCNE, 2005). Particularly, urban women
more likely to discuss domestic duties, maternity service and HIV/AIDS with their husbands than
were rural women(Population council, 2010). In addition to this there are some indications of
Children do fought for their right in rural areas. For instance in a document SCNE (2005) a girl
history is a good example;
I heard at school that my parents had planned for me to get married. I was afraid. I
didn't want to get married. When I came home from school that day, I cut off all my
30
hair. Girls with short hair go to school. I thought when my parents saw my hair they
would cancel the marriage and let me keep going to school. But when my father saw
me, he just hit me with a stick( story of Kabanesh,p.16).
Kabanesh father hits her because she was against the deep rooted traditional practice. In the same
document SCNE (2005), one child described this situation as " ... our parents don't intend to
harm us. They do these things because they learned them from their ancestors. They simply don't
know better."
The Girl students' club in Schools is one structure, which works to teach the community about
early marriage and other harmful traditional practices (HTP); through literary stories, dramas and
lecture(Berihun & Aspen, 2009). However, sometimes these clubs faces problem, Berihun &
Aspen added that in some places it may create much social tension that the club members gather
information secretly (about early marriage) and passes it to government officials in addition to
disseminating message to create awareness. Berihun & Aspen (2009) discussed a case in Amhara
region a rural place called Adisgé of early marriage arrangements (for an eight year old girl and
18 year old husband) in 2006 where at the wedding day the parents were arrested by the police.
The local school had attempted to intervene before the wedding by sending some of Girls'
student club members to discuss the issue with the parents, but was chased away by dogs
deliberately released to scare them off the area. Although Berihun and Aspen mentioned they
herd rumor that this particular marriage continued in secret. It is unacceptable generalization
because School clubs are important agent in vanguard vulnerable children even in remote places
and go to the last end to stop child marriage. In such cases club members become successful in
stopping that marriage by reporting the case to their school administrator and local legal bodies.
This shows the extent to which schools and students are fighting child marriage. This indicate
that as Ayele (2007) stated Children are not simple recipient of knowledge they have their own
agency so that they must be seen as actors who have the capacity to transform the structures that
affect their lives and initiated new one
The document written by Berihun and Aspen concluded that in Ethiopia Amhara region where
they conducted their research campaign against early marriage lacks clarity and other
unexplained objectives are added in it because of this appears to lack a proper planning and
execution strategy and denies the right of the rural population to decide for itself(Berihun &
Aspen, 2009). Another research conducted by Lisa Bowen and her callings in titled Child
Marriage in Amhara, North Ethiopia: Characteristics and Effects on Reproductive Health
concluded the need for media program that should focus on educating the community on the
negative impacts of child marriage, and with the supports of influence members of the
community such as religion leader and medical persons, to support parents to have informed
decision for abandoning the practice(Bowen, Dawit, & Misganaw, 2005). However, both
documents didn't mention how to evaluate the achieved desired behavioral changes.
31
2.4. Base line Surveys in North Gondar
Issues like Child marriage as Adam & Hartford (1999) stated that are subject to socially and
culturally determined perceptions and unless you understand local attitudes and base your media
intervention (including broadcast) on them, there is a danger that the audience will regard any
education and advice as irrelevant. Based on this sense Save the Children developed and
implemented several intervention projects base on preliminary baseline surveys in North Gondar
Ethiopia focusing women and children.
In this sub topic two base lines conducted in 2006 and 2010 will be discussed. Both of them are
done by professional experts hired by Save the Children focusing mainly on Female Genital
Mutilation and Child Marriage respectively but the studies also assessed other related harmful
traditional practices. Debark, Dabat and Wogera woredas are included as a study area in both of
the studies. The specific objectives of both surveys were to evaluate the causes of child marriage
by exploring local knowledge, attitudes and practices. The reference team deliberately asked the
incorporation of similar question items for both studies so that it show the magnitude difference
of child marriage and other HTPs within 5 years.
The first study SCN (2006) is baseline survey on Female Genital Mutilation and the Harmful
Traditional Practices, in North Gondar zone six woredas on total respondents 2400 people i.e.,
from East and West Belesa, Ebinat, Dabate, Debark, and Wogera, done by Amare Dejene and
Aster Birhaneselase in 2006 which is sponsored by SCN-E indicated that over 30 different types
of harmful traditional practice are identified, among these Child marriage, uvuloctomy, milk teeth
extraction, excessive feast, bloodletting and female genital mutilation are more common. The
prevalence of Child marriage in the area is 68%, 90 % of study subjects consider Child marriage
as harmful traditional practices and support its eradication. The result of prevalence of Child
marriage, married less than16 year, by district shows that Debark 70.8%, Dabat 66.2%, and
Wogera 70.3%. The interesting thing is that Child marriage existence in the community when
over 80% support its eradication, which shows respondents are not performing what they say but
what they think inside their mind. Some informants mentioned the presence of some families who
want to give their children for marriage under cover i.e., like showing for the witness the older
child when they are trying to give for marriage their younger child. This shows that the practice
of Child marriage is extremely deep rooted especially in the rural community where repeated and
intensive intervention is required to change the mind of the people internally(p.56). The finding
also verified that the major harmful effects of Child marriage is obstructed labor leading to fistula,
school dropouts and other psychological problems. The researchers indicated that even though
the participants supported the eradication of Child marriage from the community some religious
leaders, adults, some youth and girls claim that the limit or cut off point for marriage should be
16 year and above. Their argument is that if a girl reaches to the age of 16 she can be biologically
and mentally mature to run the house. They feel that waiting after 16 years until 18 is waste of
time and exposing the girl for premarital sex and losing her virginity(p.73).
32
Based on their findings the researchers, Amare & Aster, in SCN (2006) suggested that; when
intervention strategy is designed at Debrk, Dabat, and Wogera the first priority should go to Child
marriage followed by others(p. 85). The monitoring and follow up component should be strong
for successful achievements. Encourage muti-sectoral integrated intervention approach.
Improving the IEC-BCC strategies during intervention must be considered. Creating community
decision through community conversation can enhance the reduction and eradication of HTPs.
Appropriate and additional information dissemination must be encouraged: use the younger and
the educated groups as change agents during intervention, encourage interpersonal
communication, use the available local institution during information dissemination, and give
prizes or award for community member who contributed significant achievements during
intervention programs. Look for individuals with positive deviance behavior and present the case
to the public is also a good strategy to have role models of groups among the community. The
community still needs additional and repeated information on HTPs. For this the mass media play
a significant role. Among the elements of the mass media radio education can have a wider
coverage both in the urban and rural communities. The experience of HTP project also shows that
the radio education is a very important tool to overcome the problem and address the majority of
the population. Assist victims of HTPs and encourage them to share their experience to show
practically the effect of HTPs. Improve the Legal illiteracy of the community and advocate the
implementers for continuous and proper implementation. In general the awareness raising
program both by mass sensitization and interpersonal communication through peer education
must continue.
The second study SCN (2011) title is Child Marriage in North Gondar Zone of Amhara Regional
State Ethiopia which is sponsored by Save the Children Norway conducted by Abamela Business
Private Limited Company in 2010 and published on 2011. This is a baseline study for the project
"Combating Child Marriage in North Gondar Zone of Amhara Region, Ethiopia". This baseline
survey is conducted in six adjacent Woredas of North Gonder Zone namely, Wegera, Dabat,
Debark, Adi-Arkay, Tach-Armachiho, and Metema. A total of 1,623 people from 716 households
participated. Out that of the total 3,416 people in surveyed households, 57% of those above 18
years of age were illiterate. Female's illiteracy was much higher than male's (46.4% of males
against 68% females). Illiteracy among household members within the age bracket of 7-18 was
15.6%, while the illiteracy was higher in Tach Armachiho district as compared to other districts.
In 1991, 80.6 % of women and 25.5 % of men married before they reach age 18. After 2002, the
prevalence of men marrying before 18 years of age has reduced to 3.6 %. The prevalence of
women who married under 18 years of age was 53.8 %, showing only a slight improvement. Only
53.6% of the respondents had heard information on child marriage related issues. Parents were
less informed than their children, and adolescent girls were found relatively less informed than
boys. The major source of information for the majority of the population was non printed media:
schools/teachers, education events at health facilities, community meetings/gatherings, radio and
television were among the most common sources of information on child marriage. The result
indicated that among the respondents, 42.6% of men, 38.7% of women, and 56% of male youth
33
reported that they were aware of the existence of a legal minimum age for marriage. Of those
who expressed knowing the minimum legal age, only half of them were able to state age 18 as the
legal minimum age of marriage for girls. Most respondents saw that appropriate age of marriage
for girls was 14 years while it was 18 years for boys. More than two-third of the adolescent and
80% of the parents (both males and females) still have in their mind that child marriage has some
advantages/benefits for girls and the family in general. It was 44.2% of men and 34.4% of women
who expressed that they knew the existence of the criminal code against child marriage. Among
those who expressed knowing the criminal law most lack the details of what it contained. The
study revealed major gap on the enforcement of law. It was only 30% of the men and 27% of
women who could recall at least one community member who was punished due to arranging
child marriage, or canceled arranged child marriage due to interference by the government and
other community initiatives. Child marriage was one of the major causes for school drop out of
girls in studied woredas. One of the major child protection concerns in the studied districts where
that in one out of ten households there was a female member suffering from pregnancy and birth
related complications, which were identified as "suspected fistula" by the respondents. Absence
of effective and timely medical treatment for suspected fistula cases and other teenage pregnancy
and birth related complications at the woredas level made girls more vulnerable to further
complications.
Base on their findings in SCN (2011) the researcher's recommendations included the following
ideas: Designing culturally appropriate strategies through intensive community conversations and
dialogues, visual and audio education materials and radio programs. The community based
initiatives, mainly by government sector offices, schools, community based groups, and churches
in studied districts, should be explored further and built up. Families who stand against the child
marriage practice and delayed marriage for their children, and those girls who refused for child
marriage should receive some form of recognition as role models. Response intervention
programs for those victims of child marriage should be designed.
Both of these surveys recommended appropriate awareness creation activities including
communications using conversation, dialogue, radio programs that will eventually brings the
desired behavior change.
2.5. Theoretical models and functions of communication
Human communication Karen et al., (2008) citing Gerber (1985) defined as the production and
exchange of information and meaning by use of signs and symbols which involves process of
encoding, transmission, reception( decoding ), and synthesis of information and meaning. He
added that mass communication plays a crucial role in health or other social issues to educate
individuals and community to bring behavior changes. Media stations are key socializing agents
and play crucial roles because they select, organize, produce and disseminate information(Karen
et al., 2008). But media messages development and dissemination in interventions design to yield
desirable change Grol and others (2007) said can best be done with an understanding of theories
34
of behavior change and an ability to use them skillfully in research and practice. Karn, Barbara,
and Viswanath (2008) said that theory, research and practice which are essential to health
education and behavior change; are a continuum along which the skilled professional should
move with ease. Phillips (2011) stated that planned communication theory and practice that
combine transmission/diffusion and dialogue/ participation models within a framework primarily
based on the social psychology tradition supplemented with elements of the socio-cultural
tradition are at the diffusion and of the continuum of approaches that have taken on board some
elements of dialogue.
2.5.1. Diffusion Communication Model
The diffusion model, derived from Everett Rogers' (1962) " diffusion of innovations" theory,
regards behavior change as the goal of a communications campaign, and views the purpose of
communication campaigns as to persuade individuals to change their behavior by providing them
information. Within the diffusion model fall such activities as entertainment-education and social
marketing where the standard formulation of the model Rogers (1962) added that is
Knowledge/Attitude/Practice, or KAP: information provides Knowledge, which leads to a change
in Attitude, which in turn leads to Practice- the desired behavior change. As Waisbord (2000:5)
explains, the diffusion model has evolved in a participatory direction since its initial formulation;
however these projects necessarily involve some element of information transfer but most of the
time development communication projects tend to identify themselves quite clearly as belonging
in one or other camp.
As Tigist (2010) described Diffusion innovation is one of the known methods in which several
scholars suggested it in bringing about change at the community level and it describes how new
ideas and opinions are disseminated in order to change attitudes and behaviors of the people in a
community. Diffusion interventions according to Boeren (1992:47), Kalipeni and Kamlongera,
(1996) focus on mass media and, at times, their relationship with interpersonal communication
channels. Participatory campaigns almost exclusively concern interpersonal channels where their
principal communication channels are group meetings, workshops, and sometimes localized
`small media' such as Community Theater(Boeren 1992; Kalipeni and Kamlongra 1996).
However Servaes (1999) as cited in Tigist (2010) mentioned the criticism of innovation of
diffusion as a model which assumes as a new idea/innovation always comes from the outside not
from within. Servaes noted there is a need for an understanding for the existing local beliefs,
traditions, culture and interpretation life before any new idea or innovation takes place.
2.5.2. Participatory Communication Model
According to Wasibord (2000:17) the participatory model emerged in part as a reaction to
underlying assumptions of the diffusion model. Wasibord said participatory model holds that
development communication is not a vertical process of information transmission from the
knowledgeable to the less- knowledgeable, but rather a horizontal process of information
35
exchange and interaction. Servaes (1999) underlines that in order to share information,
knowledge, trust, commitment, and a right attitude in development projects, participation is very
important in any decision-making process for development. Proponents of participatory model
approach stress the model of empowerment adopted from the work of Brazilian educator Paulo
Freire (1970). According to him this model posits that the purpose of development is to empower
people to have greater control over decisions that affect them and in this way to foster equality
and democratic practices. Servaes (1999) said the more important thing is that participation is
made possible in the decision-making regarding the subjects treated in the messages.
The participatory approach as Cornwall (1995:1670) stated sees development interventions, "less
as means to end than as offering ends in themselves: the emphasis is not on outcomes but on
processes." The essence of the participatory approach, according to Cornwall (1995) lies in
working with community members to determine their needs and design programs to address them,
rather than imposing an intervention from above. In participatory approach Cornwall (1995) said
people are regarded "as agents rather than objects; capable of analyzing their own situations and
designing their own solutions". The participatory nature of a program as Wright et al., (1997: 631)
described, consisted of collaboration with community members starting from initial research and
the preparation of materials, and "numerous attempts... to facilitate local discussion of the issues".
Participatory communication analyst Susan B. Rifkin in her research mentioned "community
participation can be seen as a set of views and activities which reflect a solution to specific set of
circumstances where the process under which solutions develop might have some universal
characteristics but the solution itself will be local" (Rifkin, 1996:89).
Bessette (2004) defines participatory communication as a planned activity, based on the one hand
on participatory process, and on the other hand on media and interpersonal communication,
which facilitates a dialogue among different stakeholders, around a communication development
problem or goal, with the objective of development and implementing a set of activities to
continue to its solution, or its revitalization, and which supports and accompanies this initiative.
Participatory communication according to Morris (2003:226), is not a vertical process of
information transmission from the knowledge to the less knowledgeable, but rather a horizontal
process of information exchange and interaction which is similar to a method used by Paulo
Freire dialogue as a catalyst for individual and community empowerment. There are many
mechanisms according to Peruzzo (1996: 177-178), that can promote popular participation in
media such as:
x Have meetings, with the participation of the community, to discuss the
programming or even pan a radio program, to establish the guidelines for a
small newspaper, to evaluate
x Keep reporters in change of collecting and covering local, regional or
national events
x Allow people direct access to microphones or to newspapers so that they
can give their opinions.
36
x Keep programs, or sections of them, supported by ample and democratic
participation
x Open a system to collect complaints and suggestions
x Introduce participatory planning in the medium and/or program planning,
e.t.c(Peruzzo, 1996: 177-178).
One problem of Paulo Freire `dialogical pedagogy' theory of communication as Servaes
& Malikho (2005:96) mentioned is it is based on group dialogue rather than such
amplifying media as radio, print and television. But Hall (2004) stated that the experience
of participatory communication goes back at least 50 years and takes radio as the medium
of this movement. DaCosta & Jayaweeya (2007) citing Servaes (2002) described that
people can obtain information from radio and television, this information has relatively
little effect on behavioral changes in addition to this many research show that more is
learned from interpersonal contacts. But DaCosta & Jayaweeya (2007) say before people
can discuss and resolve problems; they must be informed of the facts and information that
the media provide.
2.5.3. Hybrid Approach and Health behavior change communication
According to Morris (2000) participation and diffusion approaches have differing underlying
frameworks where diffusion projects focus on knowledge transfer leading using mass media to
behavior change; participatory projects focus on community involvement as a catalyst for
individual and community development which centered on interpersonal interaction. Laverack et
al., (1997) noted that participatory and diffusion methods "are often presented as mutually
exclusive," make a case for combining them: "a suitable strategy for many programs will
probably be a practical mix of both approaches," a combination they term "semi participatory"
(p.26) The gap between diffusion and participatory approaches is being bridged by proponents of
both models, who knowingly or unknowingly have borrowed elements from one another.
Waisbord(2000 p.36) observes that further integration may grow out of "the realization that
communities should be the main actors of development communication."
Morris (2003) identified that most development communication projects define themselves as
either as diffusion-based or participatory, and participatory communication tends to define itself
in opposition in the diffusion model. However, Morris (2003:227) says "the two are not polar
opposites" and the diffusion model has in fact developed in a participatory direction and
participatory projects often contain an objective in line with diffusion. There are a wide range of
hybrid approaches that combine transmission of diffusion models and models labeled
participatory or dialogic. Phillips (2011) described such mixed approach as;
On one side of spectrum, communication is conceived and enacted as both dialogue and
knowledge diffusion and the strategic goal is still individual attitudinal and behavioral
change; at the other end, the communication is conceived and enacted solely in terms of
a discourse of dialogue, participation and empowerment and the strategic goals are
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