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Using different methods and frameworks knowing the status of perception of instructional
leaders towards utilization of media in classroom teaching as well as reasons and factors
affecting the integration are the two important steps. But finding solutions for the problems
identified in the first and second steps is the third most important step that gives inspiration to
take practical actions.
1.2.
Problem Statement
In Amhara Regional State of Ethiopia, where the study is conducted, despite the presence of
media technology equipments in schools and organizational structure with qualified human
resource from regional bureau and zone education departments (i.e., ICT core process) to woreda
education offices and school level ICT case workers (i.e., ICT technician for high/preparatory
schools and focal teacher for primary schools) and four media centers (with radio stations) staffs
giving technical and supervisory support the utilization of media technology for classroom
teaching is not satisfactory. The researcher upon his over 20 years of experience in managing
Gondar Education Media Center and giving monitoring and supervision support for schools
witnessed the low level of education media technologies utilization in primary and secondary
schools. In those schools which have good electric facilities, radio sets with dry cells, functional
plasma television systems, computers, generators, school pedagogical centers and with
alternative media materials like CD recorded educational television program and radio programs
recorded in memory stick and/or flash instructional media technology utilization is low. Why is
that? And what will be the solution? These are the key questions that should be answered. There
must be some reasons for the inefficient implementations of media technology for teaching and
learning the researcher inspired to do the present research to find out it and give possible
answers.
Therefore; the intention of this research is to compare the perception status towards educational
media technology utilization for classroom teaching of trained and well experienced instructional
leaders with that of untrained and less experienced once then identify factors affecting perception
and seek possible measures to solve the occurrence of such defaults. The first part compares the
perception status of instructional leaders towards educational media technology utilization for
the two roles of media (i.e., media as supplement and media as substitute) between those who
has got media training and those do not have the training, between those having short and long
experience in teaching, and between those having short and long experience in instructional
leadership. And the second part of the research intention is to identify perception factors under
perceivers; situation and target categories then seek possible measures to solve the occurrence of
such defaults so that instructional media technologies are properly utilized in classroom teaching
to improve students' achievement.
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1.3.
Purpose and Significance
Purpose
Looking low level utilization of instructional media technologies like radio and plasma television
program from field visits and monitoring meetings reports Amhara Region Education Bureau in
year 2013 arranged 4 day training workshop for selected 168 instructional leaders to improve
their support to teachers in the use of media technology in classroom teaching. During this
training workshop as the first activity participants are asked to fill questionnaire to measure their
perception towards teacher's instructional media utilization in classroom teaching and in the
following days focus group discussions are conducted to collect data about factor influencing
their perceptions as well as positive measures to solve the problems.
The purpose of this study is to determine the level and difference as well as factors affecting
instructional leaders (i.e., school principals and supervisors) perception towards use of media
technology in classroom teaching and recommends solutions. Specifically to see the existence of
perception difference between those instructional leaders in relation to training, experience,
perception on the role of instructional media as a supplement or substitute. In addition to these to
find out factors that influence perception of instructional leaders towards utilization of
instructional media materials in classroom teaching then give possible remedies for successful
integration.
Significance
This study has significant contribution for all level instructional leaders, supervisors and
principals perception improvement to satisfy the leadership ability to support teachers utilize
instructional media technology in classroom teaching. This study also contributes by giving clue
for decision makers in education sector, educational media materials development specialists,
education media produces as well as curriculum specialists by giving answers for problems
regarding the use of instructional media technology for classroom instruction by teachers. The
study identifies core factors that influenced instructional leader's perception. It gives light to use
the possible ideas found out from the findings as a part of solution to change instructional
leader's perception towards media utilization in classroom teaching.
The study stimulates researchers to further investigate the possible gaps of short trainings and
professional development opportunities to build school principals and supervisors in integrating
instructional media technology for student's achievement. Another contribution of this study is
for institutions involved in the training of aspiring instructional leaders in that they could use the
findings to better prepare educators for leadership positions in school administration.
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1.4.
Objectives of the study
The main objective of this research is to answer the question of what are the reasons as well as
factors influencing perception of instructional leaders to play their leadership role as far as
utilization of media technology in classroom teaching.
The following questions were drawn from the literature and used to give guide the study:
1)
Dose the level of perception of instructional leaders for the two roles of media (i.e.,
media as supplement and media as substitute) differ significantly?
2)
Are there differences between the perceptions of instructional leaders that are trained and
untrained about instructional media technology?
3)
Are there differences between perceptions of instructional leaders who have less than or
equal to three years and more than three years of teaching experience?
4)
Are there differences between perceptions of instructional leaders who have less than or
equal to three years and more than three years of leadership experience?
5)
What are the reasons for instructional leader's perception towards media utilization in
classroom teaching?
6)
What are factors that influence perception of instructional leaders towards use of media
technology in classroom teaching?
7)
What are solutions to change the occurrence of defaults so that media technology
properly utilized in classroom teaching?
1.5.
Assumptions
· This study attempted to control both internal and external variables.
· It is assumed that there is a need to measure the level of perception of instructional
leaders to building integration or inclusion of technology into the classroom teaching.
· Respondents may have tended to think they have a lower or higher level of perception
than they actually possessed, therefore, self-reporting could affect the outcome of the
study.
· The focus group discussion participants are the same people who answered the
questionnaire. But since they all are the training participants it is assumed that they
identified the actual existing factors influencing perception.
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1.6.
Scope and Limitations of the study
This research is confined in analyzing instructional leaders perception regarding communication
media technology in classroom instruction and giving recommendations identified from the
findings of the study. The participants of the study are among the total over 9,743 distributed all
over the region those 168 instructional leaders (i.e., supervisors and principals) who participated
in the 4 day training workshop conducted in the year 2013 at Enjibara town selected from
Amhara Region Schools and Education Department offices at Woreda and Zone level. Hence, it
was too difficult for the researcher to access all schools found in the region to get all
instructional leaders because of logistic and time constraint. The researcher takes the advantage
of getting all the necessary information from workshop participants (i.e., convenience sampling)
who are represented from all 11 zones and 90 % of woredas of Amhara region. Hence, care must
be taken to generalize the results of the research which is one of the drawbacks of using the
available informant's data collection method. But since the participant's characteristics match
those of the total population and participation in this research as well as in the workshop was
voluntary so that it can be assumed that the participants had full interest in providing honest
information's.
Participants are asked to self-report their perceptions regarding media technology utilization in
classroom teaching using 31 item Likert-scale questionnaire. And in focus group discussion
(FGD) they identified possible factors influencing perception of instructional media technology
used by the teachers in classroom teaching. This is another limitation of the study where reliance
on respondents' self-reported attitudinal data. However, anonymity of the respondent guaranteed
to encourage honest and open responses. Even in focus group discussion voice recording is not
used only a written group reports are utilized. Furthermore, the study is subject to those
weaknesses inherent in one group one test design.
1.7.
Definition of Terms
Information Communication Technology (ICT):- refers to both "old" media such as radio and
television, as well as "new" media such as computers, mobile phone, etc (Fidler, 1997).
Instructional leadership:- is leading and supervision, it is an act of administration, curriculum
work, instruction, human relations, management and the leadership role with various dimensions
like helping, evaluation, procuring and delivery of resource, coordinating, advising and assisting
teachers as well as students; and receiving community feedbacks about the school
programs(Wiles & Bondi,1997; Degree Directory,2011; and Okumbe ,2007).
Instructional Technology:- Instruction using technological materials like computers, audiovisual
equipments, and mass media to aid in teaching all subjects concerned with creating the optimum
teaching and learning environment through the use of technology. The term instructional
technology is interchangeable with educational technology (Dugger, 1999; Newberry, 1999).
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Leadership:- it is a relationship between a leader and the followers and a leader is a person who
has the capacity to implement change and helps others to develop their capacity as well through
the process of the change (Markova, 2014).
Perception of media as substitute:- media alone are used for instruction to improve overall
productivity. Hence the teacher need not be physically present in classroom (Taiwo, 2009).
Perception of media as supplement: - media are used to enrich existing instruction. Hence, the
teacher must be physically present in the classroom (Taiwo, 2009).
Perception:- is our sensory experience of the world around us and involves both the recognition
of environmental stimuli, through which we gain information about properties and elements of
the environment that are critical to our survival (Cherry, 2013).
Principals: - A School administrator who is seen as a chief administrator at the school level
and/or as the official leader of a school in charge of daily operations of the school and
instructional leadership (including supervision of teachers and other staffs like librarians,
secretaries, custodians, finance and purchasers) and community relations
and around the schools
should have to have much diplomacy, sensitivity, and humanity (Starratt, nd).
Supervision :- is considered as any service for teachers that eventually results in improving
instruction, learning, and the curriculum that consists of positive, dynamic, democratic actions
for the continued growth of all concerned the student, the teacher, the supervisor, the
administrator, and the parent as well as the community (Neagley and Evans,1980).
Zone and Woreda :- Ethiopia follows the federal system and is divided into two chartered cities
and nine administrative regions, one of which is the Amhara Region. Zone is a clustered
government administrative system within each Region. Within Zones there are Woredas. Woreda
represent district level government administration structure within a Zone.
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CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter contains mainly history of using instructional media in classroom theoretical
framework of perception which is central concept for conducting the study. The first and second
parts discuss the History and utilization of instructional media technology in classroom teaching.
In the second, third and fourth parts Factors affecting instructional media technology integration
in classroom teaching, the role of instructional leaders and trends of change in perception
described. In the last two parts perception theories, attributes, models and research conceptual
framework are discussed. The literatures also include empirical data that are hoped to shade
some light to the discussion.
2.1. History and Definition of Instructional Media Technology
Media and its use
According to Chiu (2010) citing (Heinich, Molenda & Russeil, 1993; Kupsh, Tanes & Graves,
1990; Levie, 1898), definition Media are vehicles through which messages or knowledge and
skills are conveyed from a presenter or a teacher to the audience or the learner. Technology is
commonly thought of in terms of gadgets, instruments, machines and devises...
(Muffoletto,1994). When we see the nature of `media as a vessel' through which sound is
passing as Yerges (1969), indicated there are different kinds of media in nature, such as air,
water(liquid), and wood(solid) , by which sound emitting from a source travels and then reaches
a receiver. Artificial media in physical world, according to Romiszowski (1988), narrowly
includes those complex electronic communication media, such as films or television, and
uncomplicated devises, such as slides, photographs, diagrams and charts which could effectively
bring about planned instruction. In present day they are called information communication
technology (ICT) as Jo Shan Fu (2013), described includes computers, internet, and electronic
delivery systems such as radios, televisions, and projectors among others, and widely used in
today's education field.
In history of mankind knowledge and experience had been transferred from generation to
generation using different methods like oral story, cave pictures, stone writings, and Egyptian
papyrus. We can say these are the oldest forms of educational media used to retain and transfer
knowledge. According to Saettler (1990), the history of educational technology can be traced
back to the time when tribal priests systematized bodies of knowledge, and early cultures
invented pictographs or sign writing to record and transmit information.
Evolution of educational technology
Educational technology according to Markova (2014), is concerned with learning out comes and
it is a broad field that has the potential to touch virtually eventually every element of teaching
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and learning at every education institution. To reach the present day development educational
technology has passed at least five stages in history ( Deka, 2011). The first stage as Deka
(2011), mentioned are non-projected aids usage; which includes use of aids like charts, maps,
symbols, models, specimens and concrete materials. Liu (n.d) said the inventions of Abacus in
3000 B.C, counting board called Salamis Table in 400 B.C., Chinas Swan Pan and Japan Soroba
in 200 A.D. for calculation are some of the earliest types of technologies for education. Newton
(1993) citing Flanagan (1989), said that one of the oldest and most widely used forms of
educational resource regardless of the influx of other instructional media in to classroom are
print materials. Liu (n.d) mentioned that Johannes Gutenberg of Germany printing press used to
print the first book ever, the Bible between 1452 and 1456. He added that horn book in 1650,
slide rule in 1654, school slate and chalkboard in 1890 are used for instruction. But regarding
print materials Kozma (1991) and Romiszowski (1988) stated that are "the most common
medium encountered in learning" and "continue to be the single most common category of
teaching materials". Westbury (1989) said in a daily works of teachers and schools books are
"the central tools and objects of attention in all schooling" (p.476).
According to Deka (2011), the second stage of development in educational technology
associated with electronic revolution, which is the use of various projected audio-visual aids like
projector, magic lanterns, tape-recorder, radio and television. Radio staring from its early days
was a good candidate for mass education and instruction. Casey (2008) and Nasseh (1997),
mentioned that not so far from its early days 1920's that educational radio broadcasting started,
viewed as the most promising new technology with its ability to reach distant learners, that
allows listeners to be far away from their instructors and replaced the old printed type
correspondence courses. Intensifying its power Reiser (2001), states that by the early 1930s
many audio visual advocators were thinking radio as the medium that would revolutionize
education. Radio becomes very popular within short time. Comparing with television Radio was
in existence 38 years before 50 million people tuned in; television took 13 years to reach that
benchmark (Gigliott, 1997). According to Liu (n.d.), the first educational films like the growth of
plants, emergence of butterfly, and undersea views are exhibited in 1902 by Charles Urban. are
introduced by Thomas Edison in classroom. He added that the first television get on air in 1927
and in 1953 television used for classroom education.
The third stage linked with the development of mass media which in turn lead to
`communication revolution' for instructional purposes (Deka, 2011). He added that computer
assisted instruction (CAI) used for education since 1950s also become popular during this era. In
1965 according to Liu (n.d), the first true computer invented and mass produced personal
computers (PC) get into market in large amount and then CAI started in 1980's. Liu also added
in 1990's windows developed and network system introduced following in 1991 World Wide
Web (WWW) were released. The 1990's products like video disk, CD-ROM's, Multimedia,
DVD, Teleconferencing and multiple types of software's started in this same decade.
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The fourth stage as Deka (2011), mentioned is identified by the individualized process of
instruction. This is marked Deka added due to the invention of programmed learning and
programmed instruction provided a new dimension to educational technology. In this stage a
system of self learning based on self-instructional materials and teaching machines emerged. The
fifth stage influenced by the concept of system engineering or system approach which focuses
on language laboratories, teaching machines, programmed instruction, multimedia technologies
and use of the computer in instruction (Deka 2011).
There are several types of instructional Medias depending on their nature and situations of
utilization. Enguday (2003) citing Amare (2003) stated that instructional media includes persons,
print media, audio (radio recordings), audio-visual materials (television, video, and motion
pictures), visuals (pictures, charts) and enactive media such as real objects. In Polizzi (2011),
research ICT refers to both old media; such as radio and television, as well as new media; such
as desktop and laptop computer, and ICT integration into teaching refers to both teaching
through the media and teaching about the media. In another document Sive(1983), classified
media in terms of attributes in to the following categories: "audio, printed, projected still-visual,
motion-visual, and audio-motion-visual" (p.24). According to Abimbade (1997); Afolabi,
Abidoye & Afolabi (2012) instructional media can be classified into three categories: non-print
such as projected materials like films, slides, film-strips; printed media are like books, text,
maps, journals and electronic media consists of visual, audio and audio-visuals that relies on
electricity to function effectively (p.2).
The term instructional technology as Newberry (1999), said can be titled several things, such as
educational technology, computer technology, and information technology. Rubin (2013) adds
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) as instructional medium and went further to
stress that not only is ICT the base of learning environment, but also it provides individuals to
have lifelong learning, to improve educational outcomes, to learn new occupational skills, and
decrease inequalities between groups. According to Dugger (1999), educational technology
involves "using technological developments such as computers, audiovisual equipments, and
mass media to aid in teaching all subjects- is concerned with creating the optimum teaching and
learning environment through the use of technology". (p.58) Therefore educational technology
can be defined as " a combination of the process and tools involved in addressing educational
needs and problems, with an emphasis on applying the most current tools: computers and their
related technologies" (Roblyer & Edwards, 2000).
Almost every material that is used to disseminate information can be defined as instructional
media materials. As Romiszowski (1996), mentioned instructional media include newspapers,
magazines, pictures, text books, laboratory equipments, audiocassettes, tapes, film scripts and
slides, overhead and opaque projectors, real objects and computers. Romiszowski also included
traditional materials such as chalkboards, handouts, charts and videotapes, as well as newer
materials and methods such as DVDs, CD-ROMs, Internet, and interactive video conferencing as
instructional Medias. Moreover Robert (2011), indicated that within the last decades multitude of
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technological advances like iPod, iPad, USB Flash Drive, High definition television, and smart
phone are few examples that revolutionized our daily lives. Therefore instructional media
according to Ajelabi (2000), refers to a broad range of information carrying resources that
constitute and integral component of classroom teaching and learning, and are utilized in an
instructional process with the hope of facilitating effective and efficient communication in the
teaching and learning process. But technology education is different from educational
technology, which most of the time called instructional technology. In this regard technology
education's main focus is to "develop technological literacy in all students through the study of
and about technology" (Newberry, 1999).
Multimedia in Education
Integrating educational technology is a process of determining and implementing specific tools
and methods are appropriate for a given classroom situation and problems. The best way of using
media for education purpose is multimedia approach. Multimedia means according to Chiu
(2010) Fetterman(1997) and Beckman(1996), is a combinations of various media that include
one or more media such as graphics, video, animation, images, and sound in addition to textual
information and they mainly includes such combinations like: projected still-visual, audio-
projected still-visual, and audio-motion-visual. However Dillon and Gabbard(1999), argued that
the impact of multimedia instructional materials on a person's higher order cognitive skills
improvement is not well established and stated that there is no convincing evidence for increased
learning in multimedia environments. But Jonassen (1989), Delany & Gilbert (1991), states that
multimedia is attention-capturing or engaging to use and represents a natural form of
representation with respect to the workings of the human mind. In addition to this Collier (1987)
and Barrett (1988), researches show that with multimedia, users can explore information in-depth
on demand and interact with instructional material on a self-paced mode. Knowing the
importance of instructional media to expand and enrich knowledge many countries utilized it in
combination with printed materials as well as audio recordings for their primary, secondary and
university education. For instance in Kdevries (2007), document it was stated that;
In Asia, the 44 radio and TV universities in China (including the China Central Radio
and Television University), Universitas Terbuka in Indonesia, and Indira Ghandi
National Open University have made extensive use of radio and television, both for
direct class teaching and for school broadcasting, to reach more of their respective
large populations. Japan University of the Air was broadcasting 160 television and
160 radio courses in the year 2000 with supplemental print materials, face-to-face
instruction, and online tutorials.
One of best known implementation of multimedia in instruction is utilization of radio. Dewey
(1937) stated that by being offered in conjunction with traditional text-based curricula,
educational radio made according to educational theory of the day that proposed active
engagement of students in materials, interactively and engagement between teachers and
students, as well as opportunities for more experimental learning would create a more solid, and
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successful learning environment all possible. As Haworth & Hopkins (2009), stated that radio is
considered best by educators who practiced traditional, non-engaging methodology in its use in
classroom teaching. They added that educational radio also had effect of foreshadowing future
implementation of educational technology and this can be explained in the manner in which
other technologies such as television and the internet were incorporated in education because of
the framework that was previously laid out by radio. Radio undergoes some modification to
make it more communicating and interactive. This idea described in Dock and Helwig (1999),
explanation of Interactive Radio Instruction (IRI) in that it is a methodology developed to make a
typical one-way technology into a tool for active learning inside and outside of the classroom,
continues to be an attractive educational strategy in developing countries. Dock and Helwig
added that IRI may be described as interactive lesson in which an external teaching element,
delivered by a distant teacher through the medium of radio or audiocassette, is carefully
integrated with classroom teachers and learners.
The begging of utilization of modern media technologies for education in Ethiopia
If we consider everything which is deliberately prepared to convey a message as media there are
different forms of ancient writings and cave pictures in different parts of Ethiopia. But if we
consider just the form of media that used for education purpose the oldest media is The Bible
written in Geez. The early form of Ge'ez was written in boustrophedon, which is writing in
alternate lines in opposite directions, as from left to right and then from right to left on the next
line, and then left to right on the next line, and so on. (Asher, 1994,p.1149). The Bible was
translated into Ge'ez from Greek. Greek influence is also seen in the organization of the Ge'ez
letters, which is very similar to Greek alphabet organization (Asher, 1994, P. 1149).
The history of modern print media in Ethiopia as Neggussie (2006), pointed out can be traced
back to the reign of Menelik II who ruled from 1889-1913. He added that the first medium to be
introduced was weekly news paper La Semaine d'Ethiopia, 1890, published in French by a
Franciscan missionary living in Harar. Neggussie (2006), in his writing mentioned that the first
Amharic newspaper was issued in 1895 and it was handwritten a four page weekly newspaper
named Aemero. After this between 1912 and 1915 weekly newspapers like Melekete Selam,
Yetor Wore and many others emerged (Neggussie, 2006).
Regarding electronics media Ethiopia has a rich experience spanning more than three decades in
using radio and television to support primary, secondary and non-formal education (Tilson &
Demissew,2000). According to Ethiopian Mass Media (2000), the audio (radio) and video
(television) technologies emerged in Ethiopia in 1935 and in 1964 respectively. Tilson &
Demissew (2000), added that Educational Media Agency (EMA) of the Ministry of Education,
which has provided the leadership in this area, traces is origin to the Audio-Visual Center,
established 1952/53. Tilson and Demissew (2000), said the Center developed, produced and
distributed audio-visual teaching aids, and even had a mobile team that traveled to villages and
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schools to show films and slides. Mass media, radio and television, under the Ministry of
Education covering over 90% of the country have been playing a very important role in the
formal education in Ethiopia unique among the developing counties (Gupta,1995).
In 1965, a year after the introduction of television in the country, television became the first
technology for broadcasting educational programs using the facilities of the Ministry of
Information (Tilson & Demissew,2000). They added that in 1969, EMA started broadcasting
from its own studio, an indication of its technical and production attainment. At that time, as a
result of increased enrollment in schools, the multiple shift system was introduced, and EMA had
to repeat the broadcast of lessons for each shift. Later in 1971, educational radio broadcasting
was initiated after a humble experiment using audiocassette programs in a prison in Addis
Ababa(Tilson & Demissew,2000). Unlike many developing countries where school broadcasts
are often a result of partnership between the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of
Information (Kdevries,2007), in Ethiopia all school radio broadcasts are done independently by
Education Bureaus and educational satellite television broadcast are in collaboration with
Telecommunication Corporation.
The first transmitter that was donated by and erected with the help of government of The
Netherlands has been operational since 1971 in Sidamo, Wolayeta(Gupta,1995). After this,
studios and transmitters procured and 12 Education Media Centers are established in different
parts of Ethiopia. Beginning from 1991, the administration and management of the educational
system follows the decentralized government structure in Ethiopia and becomes one of the duties
of the Region Education Bureaus. Mehadi and Tesfaye (2010), citing (TGE, 1994; MoE, 2006)
stated that the Ethiopian Education and Training Policy promises to intensify the integration of
instructional technology in school curriculum. Citing Teshome (1998), Enguday (2003) indicated
that research and discussions about radio support programs in Ethiopia conclusions suggested the
main goals of using radio for formal education are improving educational access, student
learning, school resources, teacher competence, and educational relevance. Edguday added that
the long term goal of the policy is to improve the quality and relevance of education as well as to
expand access and quality.
Amhara Region Instructional Media Utilization
In Amhara region in both Primary as well as in Secondary education instructional media
technologies are utilized for classroom teaching. There are four educational media centers having
radio station and full staff members equipped with recording and transmitters. Almost all
Secondary schools have plasma television set with signal reception systems as well as computers
with few exceptions of the newly established once. Almost all primary schools do have radio sets
with memory flash recorded education programs. There is ICT core process with staff members
at bureau level and the structure exists in zone, woreda and school level to facilitate material
procurement, installation, maintenance service and to give utilization training for teacher.
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As Enguday (2003), indicated particularly in Amhara Region Education Bureau Primary School
teachers training colleges the expected profile of the teachers are to acquire the necessary
professional capabilities which means the competency to select and apply appropriate and varied
learner centered methods and teaching aids as well as using educational mass media is one.
Edguday citing Education Sector Development Program (ESDP) and Amhara Region Education
Bureau (1999), report indicated that teachers of lower primary school in Ethiopia are expected to
prepare and use instructional media as far as they can in order to enhance and concretize teaching
and learning because it is particularly important due to the fact that student's abstraction level is
low or not fully develop.
2.2. Instructional Technology Importance in Classroom Teaching
Function of instructional media
Learning requires retention of what our sense organs receive and our brain analyzed. But this
retention becomes minimal if the information we received is through one sense organ however
the process will be enhanced if the reception is through multiple resources. According to Wiman
& Mierhenry (1969), people generally remember 10 percent of what they read, 20 percent of
what they hear, 30 percent of what they see, and 50 percent of what they hear and see. Therefore,
it is advisable to use multiple resource for education as Edgar Dale in his cone of experience
Tadesse (2001), indicated "audio-visual materials supply concrete basis for conceptual thinking,
they give rise to meaningful concepts enriched by meaningful association, hence they offer the
best antidote for the disease of verbalism". This was verified by Marshal (2002), technology
through sound, text, and pictures can create learning environments that support the making of
associations by providing access to new challenges, contexts, and information that might
otherwise be impossible in their absence. Marshal added that multimedia sometimes working
alone and other times together, can create rich environments conductive to the acquisition of
knowledge.
The use of modern instructional technologies enhance teaching, and learning by promoting all
the characteristics of successful learning:
gain and retain knowledge, develop critical thinking skill, integrate knowledge
within and across disciplines, the ability to work in a team to solve problems, to
excite and motivate students, to effectively communicate with students to bring latest
information to students, to be well prepared to teach (Marshal,2002).
Among many elements of school quality indicated by Getahune (2000) citing Bruce (1986: 20),
two of them are the presence of Instructional media (radio) and Active learning by students
(participation). Chiu (2010a), in his presentation indicated that audio-visual media and other
instructional materials play two major roles in instruction: ether as instructional support or as the
teaching method itself. Hardesty (1984), also listed four advantages of using media; "1) Reach a
large audience; 2) extend the influence of quality instruction; 3) overcome time and space; and 4)
create special effects to enhance learning". (p.12) Moreover Tadesse (2001), says audio-visual
16
materials help in completing the triangular process of learning vis-à-vis, motivation, clarification
and stimulation. Regarding patterns of using media for instruction Chiu (2010a) citing Stoddart
(1986), mentioned three patterns as additive, integrated, and independent approaches. The use of
media particularly radio and television broadcast for education purpose further described by
Kdevries (2007), are three general approaches which are : 1) direct class teaching, where
broadcast programming substitutes for teachers on a temporary basis; 2) school broadcasting,
where broadcast programming provides complementary teaching and learning resources not
otherwise available; 3) general educational programming over community, national and
international stations which provide general and informal educational opportunities. Kdevries
mentioned the most notable and best documented example of direct class teaching approach to
improve the quality of teaching and act as a regular structured aid to teachers in under-resource
schools is Interactive Radio Instruction (IRI) which is implemented in Latin America and Africa
many countries, particularly in Asia it was implemented in 1980s and 1990 in Thailand,
Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal. Regarding example of broadcast television for direct class
teaching Kdevries(2007), mentioned the 1968 Mexico's Telesecundaria as a cost effective
strategy for expanding lower secondary schooling in small and remote communities. Kdevries
further described the third approach as non-formal educational opportunities for all types of
learners using several types of programs like news, documentaries, quiz shows, educational
cartoons, etc. He mentioned some examples in United States like Sesame Street, National
Geographic, Discovery television shows and regarding radio program like Voice of America and
The Farm Radio Forum of Canada which began in 1940s that serves as a model for radio
discussion programs worldwide. In another document Romisziowski (1998), has grouped the
role of media in to two that; one is media used as exclusively instructional aids, to enhance or
enrich the teacher's presentation and the second is media as instructional system where they are
used to promote individualization of instruction in both conventional as well as non-conventional
setting. Furthermore Taiwo (2009), strengthened the idea of educational media two basic
functions both for teaching and avenues for learning i.e., as instructional aid and system by
enhancing clarity in communication, diversity in method, and forcefulness in appeal by so doing
these media will determine more than anything else the quality of the educational effort.
It is the combined effects of multimodal sensory perception which makes media more powerful
tool for instruction. Sabirah (2009), described about ICT help to improve quality of education as
motivating students to learner: video, television and multimedia computer programs with
combined effects of text, sound, color, and motion provide challenging and authentic content that
will engage the student in learning. Similarly interactive radio with sound effects, songs, and
dramatizations motivate student to listen and be involved in the lessons. He added that it also
helps in facilitating the acquisition of basic skills: through drill and practice ICT media can
improve student's higher order thinking skills and creativity. Syazwan (2009), indicated that ICT
can enhances learner-center learning: such as active learning, collaborative learning, creative
learning and evaluative learning. Sabirah (2009), also added that ICT enhancing teacher training:
it can improve access and the quality of teacher training; countries like South Korea, China, and
17
India utilized it through their universities for professional development of their in-service
primary and secondary school teachers.
In many parts of the world the need to implement problem solving, creative thinking and
cooperative learning to promote students intellectual capacity makes educators integrate media
technologies (Haack, 2003). A good summary of contributions of instructional media in
classroom teaching Streit, Teague & Newhouse (1984), mentioned the following four points;
1.
Students were able to see the world by visual materials such as film-strips, slides,
and prints, which provided a variety of learning experience;
2.
Accurate information of visuals & sounds could be communicated to the students
by media as vehicles;
3.
Instructional media maximized options for securing learning experiences for
instructors by giving free choice and;
4.
Different methods to help students attain learning objectives.
Because of these instructional advantages Afolabi et.al., (2012), stressed importance of provision
of instructional media materials as "government and other stakeholders in education sector
should as a matter of urgency supply schools with all the necessary instructional media to
enhance effective teaching and learning of social studies and other school subjects"(p.6).
Multimedia effects
Referring to Merriam-Weber in his writing Marshall (2002), described multimedia as "using,
involving, or encompassing several media." He added citing Mayer (2001), that conceptualizes
multimedia across three areas: delivery hardware (i.e., computer screen, audio speaker, or
television), presentation mode (i.e., words and/or pictures), and sensory modalities (i.e., auditory
or visual). Confirming the effectiveness of multimedia Chiu (2010), citing Kupsh, Jones, &
Graves (1990) suggested that media used with effective strategies in presentation could hold a
longer span of the audience's attention and add flavor to classrooms and to business meetings.
This happens because as Marshall (2002), indicated educational technologies with their multiple
modalities (audiovisual) have the ability to go beyond audio in that they not only present
multiple media, but they can also promote the learner to contemplate information, perform tasks,
refine thinking, and demonstrate understanding which we call active learning. Technology
prompt learning is the use of multiple media to present information for instance Marshall (2002),
says in the case of television and film, visual and auditory media combine to present a rich
experience for the viewer. Furthermore Getahun (2002), citing Schramm (1977) has realized the
importance of multimedia instruction which facilitate the effectiveness of learning as follows:
We have pointed out that almost all teaching is multimedia, and that "teacher
instruction" as measured in most experiments and compared with `media
instruction" is usually teacher plus more. We have thousand years of educational
history to tell us that teachers themselves believe multimedia instruction is more
effective than a single medium (1977:38).
18
Multimedia utilization makes learners more motivated which result in the ownership of the ideas
presented. But as Lehrer (1993), stated the process of internalizing and building ideas from a
multimedia presentations required learners to transform information into dimensional
representations, determine the relative importance of content, segment information into nodes,
link the information segments by semantic relationships, and decide how to represent ideas.
Onasanya (2008), stressed that learners should be assisted, encouraged and motivated not only to
learn but also to continue to learn. To help learners acquire the new ideas effectively Lehrer
(1993), mentioned using interactive tools to develop content helped engage students in the
curriculum, increase knowledge retention, and build student ability to apply knowledge to other
topics.
Students' perspective
The present day to day life requires knowhow of technology equipments. Robert (2011), citing
Thomas (2005), suggested Dewey saying "Education is not just the preparation for life but,
rather, education is life" for this to happen technology can be an active tool in bringing Dewey's
educational visions to realization in today's classrooms. Technology according to Massachusetts
Software Council (1994), lends itself well to learning and instruction because it is a powerful
tool that, when properly implemented, improves student learning and achievement. Therefore as
Newberry (1999), mentioned it to participate fully in today's workforce and enjoy the new
innovative leisure activities, students need to study technology thoroughly.
Although technology is often viewed as a strategy that will facilitate student' academic
achievement as Waxman et al., (2013) citing several researchers (Cuban, 2001; Leonard &
Leonard,2006; Padro'n, Waxman, Lee, Lin & Michko, 2012) stated that there technology is not
being integrated in schools, especially into the teaching and learning process. Those involved in
education sector have a duty to ensure that all of the students have an appropriate familiarity with
the technology that is so rapidly remarking the world; so that they get skills they need to function
effectively in the world of work (Gigliott, 1997). It is not only to prepare students for future life
but primarily as Seels (2011), stated utilization of media facilities in classroom teaching improve
pupils learning, interest, motivation, attention, participation, perception and retention. In addition
to these Instructional media enrich learner's knowledge and reinforce verbal instruction; which
means as Afolabi et.al., (2012) citing Ajelabi (2000:2), mentioned when instructional media are
used, there is tendency to make classroom environment lively and interesting.
Russell (1982), compared the traditional and modern media in that electronic media provided
variety and excitement that printed materials and lectures alone lacked and were building blocks
for building basic information, as well as passive stimuli to induce students' active expression.
Use of traditional media for instruction is the characteristics of teacher-centered learning
According to Derebssa (n.d);
There are many reasons that teacher-centered learning needs to shift learner-centered
learning. One is that student-centered learning is more aliened with the lifelong
19
learning skills needed in the workforce of the information age. Second, with the rapid
changes in history and culture, textbooks based and teacher-led learning has become
obstacle. Instead technology resources are replacing these obstacle approaches to
create an interactive learner-centered classroom.
So that as Kongshem (2002), said students learn to use technology to be productive citizens,
education must harness the many powers of technology to improve instruction and create
relevant learning environment. Regarding the effects of media Robert (2011), stated that students
get excited when technology is used in the classroom, and their excitement results in a greater
comprehension of the curriculum. In addition Robert says technology provides students with the
opportunity to become more involved with their learning, allowing them to interact with the
content. Therefore as Light (2009), mentioned it when effectively integrated into a high-quality
learning environment ICT can help deepen students' content knowledge, engage them in
constructing their own knowledge, and support the development of complex thinking skills.
Integrating media in classroom teaching allows students to participate on more kinesthetic type
activities that give students a chance to show what they taught (Robert, 2011). According to
Afolabi et al., (2012) citing Ambimbade (1997), it also makes students learn more and retain
better what they have been taught and that it also promotes and sustains student' interests; it also
allows the learners to discover themselves and their abilities.
Although utilization of media for instruction considered very effective motivate and attain
learning objectives of student's one factor that preventing this is their perception to media. As
Gundacker, Waltenstorfer & Gumpendorferstr
(1999), mentioned the audio-visual perception of
the world of young people and their desire for communication can be realized through the
filming process as part of film education. In one research Lehrer (1993), found out that high level
involvement and engagement of both high and low ability levels students where becomes very
task-oriented and autonomous as they gained confidence with the technology tools used to create
the interactive projects. Therefore as Sandholtz (1997), stated by engaging students in learning
through the use of technology, students spend more time learning and practicing the basic tasks
than student who approach the same tasks in a traditional paper-and-pencil manner. In addition
to this Robert (2011) citing Fore and Spencer (2007), stated that students get excited when
technology is used in the classroom, and their excitement results in a greater comprehension of
the curriculum.
Media enriched environment has got plenty of advantages for students but there are factors that
affect their involvements. As Haack (2003), said students in technology supported classroom
have powerful tools to help them gather information, consult with colleagues, and present their
findings that shows technology, fused into new learning models, can improve student
achievement. At risk students have shown a great improvement when technology is introduced
into their curriculum. Many experts believe the reason for this is that technology provides
educators with a way to individualize and customize the curriculum to match learner's
developmental needs, and provides a non-threatening and motivating environment for repetitious
20
learning tasks (Sinatra, Beaudry, Pizzo & Geisert , 1994). As Afolabi et al., (2012), indicated
several factors female participation in technology in that female student often run away from
science and technological subjects because of social pressures and potential attitude of female
role models. They further added the problem of gender difference that in secondary schools boys
and girls feel that teachers, counselors and parents perceive science subjects especially
technology as male oriented field course. Another factor that influences student's involvement in
technology is attitude. As Apple Corporation (2002), stated that students who have positive
reaction to use technology as a learning tool will significantly increase their learning, negative
student's reactions most certainly will impede learning. Positive student perceptions and
performance in such situation according to Clark (1985), may result as much from the novelty of
the information technology as from the impact of the technology on the teaching and learning
process. A longer exposure in ICT environment can foster students' higher critical thinking skill
so that they can attain higher levels of cognition like analysis, synthesis, evaluation ( Bonwell &
Eison, 1991; Shan Fu, 2013), and they can integrate their prior experience (Tadesse,2001).
Therefore, Shan Fu (2013) says schools are strongly advised to integrate technology across all of
the learning areas and among all learning levels. There are several inherent advantages for
students when media is used in instruction;
First, effective uses of media are vital for encouraging and facilitating students'
learning. Second, through the use of media subject content can be more carefully
selected and organized. Thus, the quality of instruction delivered by teacher can be
delivered in a well organized, consistent, specific and clearly defined manner. Third,
teacher's delivery of instruction can be much more standardized as learners' with
varying abilities can receive the same message and their individual differences
catered for using media. Also, instructional media usage in practical teaching can
make instruction to be much more interesting and enjoyable.
Teachers' perspective
From teachers' point of view as Onasanya (2008) citing Agun (1988), instructional media are
those materials used by teachers to present, illustrate and elucidate the lesson. Onasanya further
described media can promote in addition to student-student, student-teacher interaction it also
improves teacher-teacher interaction that promotes stimulus variation for feedback as well as
reinforcement. Media also save teaching time as they require short time to present large
information (Onasanya, 2008). In another document Morris (1962), mentioned the function of
technological media is to supplement the teacher through enhancing his effectiveness in the
classroom. In this regard Bastable, Gramet, Jacobs and Sopezyk (2010) media have a potential to
assist learners not only in acquiring knowledge and skills but also in retaining more effectively
what they learn. To do this objective Bastable and et al., (2010) added that instructional media
should reinforce and supplement-not substitute for for-the educator's teaching efforts.
Implementing instructional media in classroom according to Robert (2011), provided teachers
with the opportunity to reflect on their practices while embracing new, innovative strategies that
21
motivate and enhance student learning. Tadesse (2001) in his research paper mentioned citing
Aggarwal (1986:154), about advantages of technological media devices as they help the teacher
clarify, establish, correlate and co-ordinate accurate concepts, interpretations and appreciations
and enable him/her to make learning more concrete, effective, interesting, inspirational,
meaningful and vivid. In addition to these since students enter into schools with varying degree
of abilities and potentials, teachers need instructional media to help them communicate
effectively, and thus cope with students' needs based on their abilities (Onasanya, 2008).
One of the many objectives of lesson planning improves retention by increasing interaction and
empowering students. So instructional process as Gigliott (1997), mentioned demands teachers
prior planning and preparation; to be organized and adaptable; make it more suited to students
preferred learning style; use multiple message delivery means like text, sound and images to
enrich and enliven the classroom so that communication between everyone in the classroom.
Bringing media materials along in the class doesn't bring the desired objectives Light (2009),
says that teachers must know how to structure lessons, select resources, guide activities, and
support this learning process; many traditionally- trained teachers are not prepared to take on
these task which requires more student centered learning.
The instructional media programs have got multifaceted advantages they are not only important
for students but also they help teachers improve their teaching methods and to change their
attitude towards utilization of media in classroom. Such idea suggested in many documents for
instance Cavanaugh, Gillan, Kromrey, Hess & Blomeyer (2004), described that in addition to
targeting students, progressive educational radio could also focus on teachers, assisting them in
learning the methods of teaching. This fact also verified by Bianchi (2002), in that teachers who
created media programs at the school agreed with the principles of its effectiveness and through
programming, tried to demonstrate that when the classroom teacher actively facilitated learning,
students were more attentively and involved. But Taiwo (2009) citing Lewis (1990:144), study
that tested fifteen questions in an effort to determine teacher perceptions relative to education
media his findings were that teachers perceive educational media as being readily available and
that they perceive formal training in the area of audiovisual instruction as being unnecessary. In
particular in United States utilization of radio in education (educational Radio) according to
Postman (1993), met with a collision between difficulty and confusion; by so-called
"technophobes" and "technophiles". Haworth & Hopkins (2009), also described about the
hindrance to the widespread adoption of radio in education is that teachers and students needed
to be prepared to interact with the content of the radio program. This exclusion of many
alternative effective educational media materials as Derebssa (nd) research findings obtained
from classroom observation and analysis of curricular materials, for students in Ethiopia school
system is because of the fact that repetition is associated with creating a deep impression or
develop understanding by discovering new meaning ... and lecture method is found to be more
appropriate for establishing such understanding.
22
Instructional leaders' perspective
Due to the presence of complex multiple types of message delivery, retrievals as well as
accumulation technologies teachers should be taught how to make and utilize different
instructional media materials. However instructional media intrinsic value in teaching and
learning processes as Onasanya (2008), stated educators have recognized long time ago and this
intern engendered the inclusion of components of media education, in teacher training programs.
Because of this school leaders didn't give proper concern towards integration of media materials
in classroom teaching. In this regard Polizzi (2011), research result shows that principal's
behavior seems to be independent from teachers' attitudes towards ICT integration into teaching,
in that there is no relationship between teachers' attitudes towards ICT integration in teaching
and principals' supportive behaviors. Haack (2003), study also did not find gender or access to
technology significantly influenced the perception of principals their basic technology skills and
abilities to satisfy administrative and teaching technology standards. In contrast to these in
Robert (2011), study about effects of technology in classroom teaching on principal at rural
school reported that technology in rural schools brings the world to the children like virtual field
trips give kids the opportunity to see things they would have never seen before. Another benefit
of principals had seen on their campuses concerning technology was its ability to help low-
performing students achieve. In Robert (2011), study one principal stated that technology has
made a difference in our school because it serves as a needed resource for both our teachers and
students because with the use of technology we have been able to meet the needs of our low
performing students. But many research according to Waxman et al., (2013), suggested that
school leaders play a key role in determining whether or not technology is integrated in their
schools. They added citing Ritchie (1996) that the lack or presence of leadership support
negatively or positively influences technology adoption and implementation in schools
respectively.
Media Specialists/ School Pedagogical Centers experts' perspective
In the year 1975 the term `school library media center' and `school library media specialist' had
been introduced then the concept of libraries and person working in them was changed to
resource based teaching and learning where the concept of the learner as a problem solver and
director his/her learning using the instructional method that provide access to a variety of media
formats and technologies (Gwendolyn, 1998). The library media specialist as the instructional
consultant and partner according to Gwendolyn (1998:3), give advice and share experience to
classroom teacher in their responsibilities of the teaching process as they design, implement and
evaluate instruction for and with students. He added that in USA some public institutions who
responded to the call developed libraries plus audiovisual centers but staffed and housed them in
separate quarters so that most visionary instructional leaders hired broadly trained persons to
oversee the development and execution of library centers which contained print and non-print
resource.
23
A study of pedagogical centers in primary schools of Addis Ababa, Getahun (2002) citing Amare
and Tasew (1996:36), indicated that the availability of educational materials has received
increasing attention in the last couple of decades because of growing evidence that it is an
important correlates and a classroom achievement. However one of the several factors that
hinder the utilization of media for classroom instruction according to Engudy (2003), research
findings are lack of effort on the part of the teacher him/herself to go find from pedagogical
centers and use, lack of facilities in schools to prepare media materials, shortage of time to learn
about the available media materials, lack of trained pedagogical center personnel, lack of
coordination between schools and responsible bodies to prepare training workshop, and in-
service trainings are some of problems mentioned.
Research findings reviled effectiveness of media technology for education
About the function of Instructional media technology reviewing several documents Chiu
(2010a), stated that they are employed to enhance instructional effectiveness and help the
learners attained their learning objectives or change their behavior. Moreover Light (2009) citing
(Hennessy, Deaney & Ruthven, 2003; Kozma & McGhee, 2003), said cooperative and
supportive relationship of students with teachers which is very important for learning as different
researches in many countries identified that can be improved by introduction of technology into
the learning environment. Marshall (2002), described that the process of learning, including the
linking of existing knowledge to newly acquired content, suggests that technology can, and dose,
facilitate learning.
In his experimental research Lehrer (1993), students in the multimedia and control group ( i.e.,
who learned traditionally) immediately no significance difference but after a year, important
difference emerged. Lehrer finding showed student in the control group could recall almost
nothing about the historical content, whereas students in the multimedia group displayed
elaborate concepts and ideas that they had extended to other areas of history which is a
knowledge that was richer, better connected, more applicable in the future and have significantly
higher level of engagement. In another research Okolo and Ferretti (1998), showed that student
composition representing ideas simultaneously through text and audio, video and sound i.e., use
of wider range of media, increased the likely hood that students will acquire an understanding of
complex information. In addition to this Okolo and Ferretti noted that students with a wide range
of abilities i.e., readily mastered these tools, and were highly motivated by the opportunity to
enhance their writing with other media which means student's exposure to multimedia
instruction increased their variety of expression enhanced attitudes as well. Marshall (2002),
reviewing more than 50 research studies addressing voice, video, and computer-based learning
provide conclusive evidence that students can, and do, learn from educational technologies.
Another research conducted by Robert (2011), of the 265 comments about how technology had
influenced their schools, only 8.3% of the principals reported technology had no influence or a
negative influence. According to Robert finding the reason given over 50% of the time was a
lack of resources, so that they state that technology really had not impacted the students yet.
24
Because of all these facts several measures have been recommended to improve student's
attitude and academic achievement in school subjects (Afolabi et al., 2012). Among the measures
that improved students' academic achievement recommended by Afolabi et al.,(citing Oyedeji,
2002; Afuwape, 2004), are appropriate uses of teaching methods, instructional media and
resource and enriched classroom.
2.3. Factors Affecting Instructional Media Technology Integration in Classroom Teaching
2.3.1. Intrinsic and Extrinsic barriers to instructional media integration in classroom
teaching
Enguday (1988) citing Callahan & Clark (1988), noted that in actual classroom situation the
degree to which teachers utilize instructional media has become one of the major challenges in
the field of education. Particularly in developing country as Light (2009) citing (Light & Menso,
2006; Perez et al., 2003) , stated ICT integration in classroom is challenging because of a number
of factors such as teachers knowledge, time, access to ICT tools, inability to alignment of ICT
with pedagogical goals. Ether (1999), categorized barriers of technology integration by teachers
into two broader classifications: first-order barriers `extrinsic' to teachers (access, time, support,
resources, and training) and second-order barriers `intrinsic' to teachers (attitudes, beliefs,
practices and resistance).
Every institution according to Markova (2014), has its own traditions and culture that help its
members to define who they are, how they perform their jobs, and what they believe in as a
group. When we see external factors affecting ICT integration at school level in general Shan Fu
(2013), included ICT technology availability and accessibility, time to plan for instruction,
technical and administrative support, school curriculum, school climate and culture, teaching
load and management routine, and pressure to prepare students for national entrance exam. Shan
Fu (2013), also added internal factors related to teaching includes; understanding of ICT use;
beliefs, which may conflict with the application of ICT; attitudes toward technology integration;
perceptions including intention or motivation to use ICT; self-confidence and knowledge;
technology skills; readiness to use ICT; and technology self-efficacy. In particular Ertmer
(1999), Holloway (1996), Susan (1997), Mehadi & Tesfaye (2010) citing (Moore et al., 2005;
Earl, 2002; Arends,1997; Betz, 2000) , identified the barriers affecting teachers: first-order
barriers extrinsic to teachers (access, time, support, resources, training, teaching tasks like
amount of subject taught/weekly load and number of students in class) and second-order barriers
intrinsic to teachers (attitudes, beliefs, practices, resistance). Ertmer added that even if every
first-order barriers were removed, teachers would not automatically use technology they continue
to affect but from time to time they vanish. Other factors which are barriers of technology
integration even when both intrinsic and extrinsic barriers removed are; teachers' reluctant
(Ertmer, 1999:51), phobia for certain medium and not convinced that teaching with words alone
is very tedious, wasteful and ineffective (Enguday, 2003 citing Romiszowski, 1974), and fear of
using any other form of technology (Duhaney, 2000). Teachers resistance in the form of
25
traditional instructional beliefs may be acting as major negative factor in the implementation of
technology in education(Handal, 2004), this is because according to Ponticell (2003), they have
been shown to be conservative as a group that reflexively resist curricular and instructional
innovation.
The issue of pre and in-service teacher's trainings are a responsibility of educational
administrators and leaders. Because Susan (1997), indicated that many teachers encountered
technical and logistical problems that they cannot solve themselves and often lack the training
and support necessary to resolve the problems. Regarding training according to Grabe and Grabe
(1998), study approximately fifty percent of teacher-education graduates surveyed felt they were
either not prepared or were poorly prepared to use technology. Shan Fu (2013), identified three
barriers to effective technology integration from education leaders perspective include: school
inspectors focus more on the quantity of course content and student test scores than on ICT usage
(citing Yildirim, 2007); lack of appropriate administrative support for the effective use of ICT
(citing Lim, 2007); and lack of appropriate hardware, software, and materials (citing Yildirim,
2007).
Many research findings stated Susan (1997) citing (Chin & Hortin, 1993; Denk, Martin &
Sarangarm, 1993; Schrum, 1995; Wang & Chan, 1995), either time or access or both issues are
the dominant critical factors that teachers describe as constraints to integrate media in classroom
instruction. Susan added that teachers do have several tasks that need time like meetings, to plan
lessons, to learn how to use the equipment or application, and time to solve the problems
encountered.
2.3.2. Positive actions for integrating instructional media in classroom teaching
Gabriella (2011), mentioned the chain of relations of perception, attitude, intention and behavior
is that perception influence attitudes; these attitudes then affect the behavioral intention to use a
technological system; such intentions influence actual technology use. Therefore Gabriella
stressed that if they have positive attitude school principals increase the amount of ICT
equipment in schools, they can indirectly support an increase of media and technology usage in
the classroom. Gabriella (2011), research finding indicates there is no relationship between
teachers' attitudes towards ICT integration in teaching and principals' supportive behaviors, but
principals in schools where large amount of ICT equipment available for teachers tend to give
stronger support for its integration into teaching. But Tadesse (2001) citing Berhane (1999),
confirmed that teachers with positive attitude towards radio instruction were shown to have a
better performance.
Susan (1997) citing Harvey & Purnell (1995), indicated that teachers
perception is of great value to other teachers, in-service coordinators, school administrators, and
educational media material developers because introduction of technology as a useful tool in
instruction takes time and actually using it and should be an on-going process, not a static event.
26
There are many different situations that influence teachers to change their attitude and perception
towards instructional media technology usage in classroom teaching. Teachers according to
Somekh (2008:450), are not a free agents and their use of ICT for teaching and learning depends
on the inter-locking cultural, social and organizational contexts in which they live and work.
Teachers' beliefs (such as teachers' conceptions, practical knowledge, personal knowledge and
experiential knowledge) have been conceptualized as a set of assumptions that teachers hold on
various educational process such as curriculum, schooling, students, teaching and learning, and
knowledge (Handal, 2004). For instance as Brinkerhoff (2006), mentioned when teachers are
able to test new approaches in their classrooms and witness positive student responses, it is
possible not only to influence, but actually to change beliefs and practice. Because teachers and
students according to D'Ignazio (1990c), become teams of knowledge explorers who translate
textbook knowledge into new exiting presentations, using the different technologies, this makes
learning for many students become more exiting as they are actively involved in the process.
Another point mentioned by Zhao and Cziko (2001), observing successful others can increase
teachers' perceived need for change, as well as increase their understanding of what new
practices look like. The reverse is true as Hazzan (2003), result revealed perceptions of a
negative undercurrent form veteran teachers toward such practices, discouraged novices from
integrating technology into their lessons. Because of this Shan Fu, (2013), suggested that schools
can provide opportunities for pre-service teachers to observe a variety of examples and models
that senior teachers utilize ICT in their classrooms to understand difficulties they may face when
they use them, which they can then apply with real learners.
Culture or peer pressure can have positive results regarding creating motivation on teachers
media technology integration in classroom instruction. Somekh (2008), described three schools
from three different countries that enable teachers to adopt technology in pedagogically useful
way due to the principal's vision and motivation as well as the innovation led to a "change in the
nature of teacher-teacher relationships, based on collaboration and mutual support"(pp.57-58).
Norms address everything from which values and goals are promoted, to which tools or
resources are acceptable to use said Hennessy, Ruthven, & Brindley (2005), so given this, it is
not surprising that "teachers are reluctant to adopt a technology that seems incompatible with the
norms of a subject culture"(p.16). According to Cennamo, Ross, and Ertmer (2010), in order for
"optimal" technology integration to occur, teachers need to know how to:
1. Identify which technologies are needed to support specific curricular goals
2. Specify how the tools will be used to help students meet and demonstrate those
goals
3. Enable students to use appropriate technologies in all phases of the learning
process including exploration, analysis, and production
4. Select and use appropriate technologies to address needs, solve problems, and
resolve issues related to their own professional practice and growth (p. 10).
27
Technologies are valuable resources, but only when used in a systematic process for developing
human competence (Earle,1992). Employing technology for any kind in the instructional process
according to D'Ignazio (1989), becomes valuable only when they are seen merely as elements in
a well-constructed learning environment. If technology is to be adopted in the classroom then
curriculum designers are to take in account teachers' beliefs and attitudes in any implementation
process (Handal,2004). Working in an appropriately designed technology-rich environment has
the potential of producing a variety of positive outcomes as Tiene & Luft (2001), stated are:
improved patterns of social interaction, changes in teaching styles, more effective teaching,
increased student and teachers motivation, and enhanced student learning. Unless teachers have
clear ideas of how media technology improve teaching learning they become less motivated to
use it and tackle the technical and scheduling problems associated with it (Means, Blando,
Olson, Middleton, Morocco, Remz & Zorfass, 1993). Because as Brown et al., (1965) cited in
Tadesse (2001), stated that utilization of instructional materials is primarily a matter of
understanding, skills and motivation on the part of teachers. It is true that teachers, who associate
knowledge or competence with control according to Susan (1997), would also be less likely to
use the unpredictable machines for instruction. According to Ertmer (2005), teachers' practices
are unlikely to change without some exposure to what teaching actually looks like when it's
being done differently. And also Hew & Brush (2007), added that lack of technology-related
management skill can inhibit technology integration. Therefore, Borko & Putnam (1995:37),
says to help teachers change their practice; we must help them to expand and elaborate their
knowledge systems.
There are many ways to help teachers change their practice besides formal training. For instance
Gahala (2001), stated individual tutoring, peer coaching, collaboration, networking, and
mentoring; time to develop new teaching strategies (Susan, 1997), have been used successfully
over extended periods to help teachers at all levels of technology implementation develop
technology applications that promote engaged learning. Susan (1997),Brody (1995), Fuller
(2000) and Gahala (2001), added that when teachers are actively using technology in their
classrooms and they encounter difficulties, they need modeling, meaningful, essential,
encouraging and appreciative immediate help and support. To make sure the immediate help for
teachers hiring an on-site technology coordinator according to Clifford (1998), is the single most
effective action a school leaders can take when we need the technology integration in classroom.
Another point Reio and Lasky(2007), suggested is that schools should create change-oriented
environments supporting experimentation and innovation, as well as include teachers in the
decision-making process.
As Gardner (1991), indicated the change starts with individual teacher, who, upon caching the
vision, is willing to take risks, to experience confrontations or encounters in rethinking teaching
and learning, and to model for and be a mentor to peers. Therefore successful technology
integration must be seen as an ongoing innovative process designed to meet
instructional/learning needs (Robey, 1992). A qualitative study conducted by Lim (2007) as cited
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- , 2015, Factors Affecting Instructional Leaders Perception towards Educational Media Utilization in Classroom Teaching, Hamburg, Bedey Media GmbH, https://www.anchor-publishing.com/document/312833
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