Shopping cart
0 Items | US$ 0.00
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ... 7
ABSTRACT ... 9
LIST OF FIGURES ... 13
LIST OF TABLES ... 13
LIST OF APPENDICES ... 13
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ... 14
1 INTRODUCTION
...
15
1.1 Research
Background
...
15
1.2 Research
Objective
...
16
1.3 Structure of the Report ... 16
2 LITERATURE
REVIEW
...
17
2.1 Background
... 17
2.2 Types of Asbestos ... 18
2.2.1 Serpentine
Group
...
18
2.2.2 Amphibole
Group
...
19
2.3 Serpentine and Amphibole Crystal structure and shape ... 21
2.4 Asbestos deposits in India ... 22
2.5 Consumption of asbestos fibers in India ... 25
2.6 Import and export of asbestos in India ... 25
3 ASBESTOS
CONTAINING
MATERIALS
...
27
3.1 Introduction
... 27
3.2 Risk and precaution of asbestos exposure ... 29
3.3 Approved Laboratories in India ... 30
3.4 Methods of Identifying Asbestos fibers ... 32
3.4.1 SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy) ... 32
3.4.2 TEM (Transmission Electron Microscopy) ... 33
3.5 Laboratory analyses of asbestos cement sample ... 34
3.5.1 Results of SEM Analysis ... 35
4 HEALTH IMPACTS DUE TO ASBESTOS EXPOSURE IN INDIA ... 48
4.1 Toxicity of various types of Asbestos ... 48
4.2 Asbestos Related Disease (ARD) ... 48
4.2.1 Asbestosis
...
49
4.2.2 Malignant
Mesothelioma
...
49
4.2.3 Asbestos Related Lung Cancer (Bronchial carcinoma) ... 50
4.3 Occupational exposure in India ... 51
5 INDIAN REGULATION ON ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF
ASBESTOS EXPOSURE ... 52
5.1 Waste
Handling
... 52
5.1.1 Waste
Avoidance
...
53
5.1.2 Waste
Collection
...
54
5.1.3 Identification and Isolation of waste ... 55
5.1.4 Transportation of Asbestos waste ... 55
5.1.5 Disposal of asbestos waste ... 55
5.1.6 Personal protection and hygiene ... 56
5.1.7 Supervision
...
56
6 SAFER ALTERNATIVES OF ASBESTOS ... 57
6.1 List of asbestos alternatives ... 58
7 RESULTS
AND
DISCUSSION
...
61
8 CONCLUSION
...
63
9 REFERENCES
...
65
10 APPENDICES ... 72
13
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1:
Types of Asbestos ... 18
Figure 2:
Amphiboles crystals structure ... 21
Figure 3:
Serpentine crystals structure ... 21
Figure 4:
Asbestos mines in India ... 24
Figure 5:
Global asbestos fiber consumption, 2012 ... 25
Figure 6:
Asbestos roofing in India ... 29
Figure 7:
Binocular photographs of asbestos cement sample ... 34
Figure 8(a-d): SEM Images of asbestos cement sample ... 35
Figure 9:
SEM image showing single asbestos fibers ... 38
Figure 10:
Energy dispersive x-ray spectrum showing elemental peaks ... 38
Figure 11:
SEM image showing bundle of asbestos fibers ... 40
Figure 12:
Energy dispersive x-ray spectrum showing elemental peaks ... 40
Figure 13:
Histogram showing Fiber length in m ... 42
Figure 14:
Histogram showing Fiber width in m ... 42
Figure 15:
Analysis of asbestos fiber to determine its fiber complexity ... 46
Figure 16:
Intercept ellipse with axial ratio ... 47
Figure 17:
OSHA compliant respirators and personal protective equipment ... 53
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1:
Asbestos Production (Quantity), 2011-12 and 2012-13 (By Sectors) ... 22
Table 2:
Results of EDXA Spectrum ... 39
Table 3:
Results of EDXA Spectrum ... 41
Table 4:
List of Asbestos Alternatives ... 60
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Fiber length quantification from Single Fibers ... 72
Appendix 2: Fiber width quantification from Single Fibers ... 73
Appendix 3: SEM Image of MY_1-2-3_SE and MY_1-1-4_SE ... 73
Appendix 4: Standards specified under Factory Act and Mines Act ... 74
Appendix 5: Properties of various types of Asbestos ... 76
14
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ANROEV: Asian Network for the Rights of Occupational and Environmental Victims
ATSDR: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
AWM: Abfallwirtschaftsbetrieb München
BIS: Bureau of Indian Standards
DTE: Down to Earth
EDXA: Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis
EIA: Environmental Impact Assessment
GIA: Gemological Institute of America
IARC: International Agency for Research on Cancer
IBAS: International Ban Asbestos Secretariat
ILO: International Labor Organization
MCDM: Modified Cantor-Dust Method
NABL: National Accreditation Board for Testing and Calibration Laboratories
NIOSH: National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
OEHNI: Occupational and Environmental Health Network of India
OSHA: Occupational Safety and Health Administration
PCM: Phased Contrast Microscope
PIC: Prior Informed Consent
PLM: Polarized Light Microscopy
PPE: Personal Protective Equipment
PVA: Poly- Vinyl Acetate
PVC: Poly-Vinyl Chloride
SAED: Selected Area Electron Diffraction
SEM: Scanning Electron Microscopy
TEM: Transmission Electron Microscopy
US EPA: United States Environmental Protection Agency
WHO: World Health Organization
XRD: X-Ray Diffraction
15
1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Research Background
Asbestos is banned in most industrialized countries. Yet it is still the biggest occupational
killer worldwide: the World Health Organization (WHO) estimates asbestos causes more than
107,000 deaths globally every year through occupational exposure alone [WHO, 2014a].
More than 90 per cent of global asbestos production and trade are associated with chrysotile
asbestos (or white asbestos) - a serpentine mineral of tabular silicates subclass [WHO, 2014b;
Speranskaya et al., 2008]. There is a scientific consensus based on conclusive proof that all
types of asbestos are hazardous to human health. The International Agency for Cancer
Research (IARC) classifies asbestos as a proven human carcinogen. No amount of asbestos
exposure is safe for human health [IARC, 2012]. Consequently, the use of all forms of
asbestos has been banned in most of the developed countries. Unfortunately, India has failed
to impose such ban. On contrary, India has greatly increased asbestos use in recent years. The
case of asbestos use in India is clear example of a "Crime against Humanity" where the
government and the asbestos industry with full knowledge of the harmful effects of asbestos,
are allowing millions of people to be exposed to this deadly toxic substance [Allen, 2007].
To this day, it's still confidential to the workers about the health vulnerabilities of asbestos
and are faced with scandals in government efforts to deal with public health asbestos prob-
lems. Asbestos is sold without statutory warning symbol in the market of India and are not
penalized and in majority cases the workers do not wear the protection wear [DTE, 2000].
There is a very little knowledge in India and many other countries about asbestos and its
health effects. One might think that since this topic is so well scientifically explored in the
EU, there is a spillover effect to other countries. However, the current Indian government
makes no attempt to learn the lessons from for example: the EU. To spark regulating efforts in
India, and other countries, it is necessary to show data and research from national level.
Therefore more research about the national situation is needed, combined with already
existing studies from other parts of the world.
Throughout the last few years, there has not been any detailed analytical study over asbestos
exposure in India. Motivated by these findings, the focus of this study is to further explore
within the context of asbestos exposure and its fiber morphology- how the presence of
16
asbestos fiber influences the human health, what retailers needs to be aware of and consider
regarding asbestos exposure and should "reveal" the facts to the workers as well as citizens
both literally and visually.
1.2
Research Objective
Many studies in India have been focused on the importance of banning asbestos production,
and asbestos-related diseases, while offering no explicit information on asbestos fibers
carcinogenic potentiality and asbestos waste management. So far, no comprehensive study of
the asbestos and asbestos waste management has been performed in India. This study,
therefore, aims to focus on the fiber carcinogenetic to human health, difficulties in managing
asbestos waste, and to propose various asbestos alternative "safer" products specified by
number of organizations.
Therefore one can better understand and analyze the various attributes of the asbestos expo-
sure, and can be aware of and avoid the future use of asbestos and manage damage asbestos-
containing materials with necessary precaution.
1.3
Structure of the Report
This report has been divided into 8 chapters and organized as follows. The chapter 1 provides
an introduction to the research study briefly outlining the research background and objectives
of the study and finally summarizes the overall structure of the report. Literature on asbestos
along with recent data on production and consumption of asbestos in India has been reviewed
in chapter 2; Chapter 3 describes the risk and precaution of asbestos exposure, different
methods of identifying asbestos fibers and laboratory analyses of asbestos cement sample;
chapter 4 discusses about the health impacts due to asbestos exposure in both occupational
and non-occupation environment; Chapter 5 is a framework incorporating points that can be
used to heap address the Indian regulation for asbestos waste management; chapter 6 contains
the safer alternatives of asbestos; chapter 7 contains main results and discussion and finally
chapter 8 presents the conclusion of the main findings and puts the research into a wider
context. It describes the contribution of this study, recommends fields for further research.
17
2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
Background
Asbestos once has been considered as a miracle material due to its excellent heat and fire
resistant qualities, in addition, has a history that dates back to the prehistoric Greek Island of
Ewoia- which is assumed to be the site of the first asbestos mine. As a matter of fact, the word
"asbestos" comes from a Greek word meaning "inextinguishable" [Hylton et al., 2008].
According to World Health Organization [WHO, 2014], asbestos is defined as-
The term "Asbestos" is a common name for a group of naturally occurring fibrous minerals
with current or historical commercial usefulness due to their extraordinary tensile strength,
poor heat conduction, and relative resistance to chemical attack. For these reasons, asbestos is
used for insulation in buildings and as an ingredient in a number of products, such as roofing
shingles, water supply lines and fire blankets, as well as clutches and brake linings, gaskets
and pads for automobiles.
The continuous use of enormous quantities of asbestos around the world remains as an
important commodity in the global trade [Frank and Joshi, 2014]. It is well conveyed that the
exposure to asbestos causes negative health effects on people who are occupationally ex-
posed, work or live in asbestos-containing buildings, and or living close to the asbestos
source. Many cases of secondary exposure are known, e.g. wives washing the working cloths
of their husbands. In India only, about 2 to 3 million active workers are suffering from
exposure to asbestos and other dusts or fibers [Joshi and Gupta, 2004]. The number of
suspected people who were exposed to asbestos in India was 10 million till 2002 [Allred,
2003]. According to the International Labor Organization (ILO), a million people will die due
to asbestos-related cancers by 2020 [ILO, 1999; Joshi and Gupta, 2004]. Asbestos-related
diseases have a very long latency period of 20 to 40 years. In Germany, for example, where
asbestos of all types were banned in 1993, the peak of ARD were recognized since 1980
[IBAS, 2015; Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2014]. In India, although
it has been banned since 1993 [Sreedhar and Alag, 2014] there is no such restriction on the
use of asbestos. On contrary, there is an increasing consumption rate of asbestos in India
[Joshi and Gupta, 2004; Ramanathan and Subramanian, 2001]. Asbestos exposure is clearly
related to serious morbidity and early mortality [Jadhav and Roy 2012].
18
2.2
Types of Asbestos
Asbestos is commonly composed of fiber bundles which can be effortlessly separated into
long, and thin fibers. Conclusive identification of a particular fiber type depends upon the
microscopic study and detailed analysis. United States Environmental Protection Agency (US
EPA) has defined six mineral types of "asbestos" including those belonging to the serpentine
group and those belonging to the amphibole group. All six asbestos mineral types are known
to be human carcinogens [IARC, 2012].
Asbestos minerals are mainly divided into 2 groups--amphibole and serpentine group--based
on their chemistry and fiber morphology.
Figure 1: Types of Asbestos
2.2.1
Serpentine Group
The serpentine group is comprised solely of chrysotile asbestos. Serpentine fibers appear
wavy under low magnification [Frank and Joshi, 2014].
2.2.1.1
Chrysotile [Mg
3
Si
2
O
5
(OH)
4
]
Chrysotile, also known as white asbestos, accounts for some 90-95 per cent of all the asbestos
used worldwide [Frank and Joshi, 2014]. Chrysotile is a fibrous hydrated magnesium silicate
mineral [Mg Si (OH)], which is used, in about 3,000 commercial products worldwide [Rama-
Asbestos
Amphibole Group
Tremolite
Actinolite
Amosite
Crocidolite
Anthophylite
Serpentine Group
Chrysotile
19
nathan and Subramanian, 2001]. Chrysotile, the commercial variety of asbestos is known to
cause mesothelioma [Lemen, 2004]. Even though, chrysotile is the most ordinary type of
asbestos, it accounts for over 95 per cent of the world production and is exploited in more
than 40 countries [Ansari et al., 2007]. Asbestos cement industry is the largest user of
chrysotile asbestos throughout the world and asbestos cement products are made stronger by
the addition of approximately 5 to 10 per cent of chrysotile asbestos during mixing of cement
[Dave and Beckett, 2005]. India consumes about 0.1 million tons of chrysotile every year,
mostly imported from Canada, Brazil, Kazakhstan, Russia and South Africa [Allen, 2005]. In
Bihar (India), chrysotile asbestos occurs in Singhbhum districts associated with serpentinised
dunites and peridodites and is typically between 3.1 to 6.2 mm long and short between 9.4 to
15.75 mm. Likewise, Lakshmana mines in Cuddapah district in Andrapradesh chrysotile
fibers are between 0.076 to 0.152 mm in length [Ban Asbestos India, 2007].
2.2.2
Amphibole Group
The amphibole group consist of amosite, crocidolite, anthophyllite, tremolite, and actinolite
asbestos. All the amphibole fibers are straight and needle-like in their microscopic appearance
[Frank and Joshi, 2014]
2.2.2.1
Amosite [Fe7Si8O22(OH)2]
Amosite is perceived as a grey-white vitreous fiber under a microscope, therefore it is also
known as the mineral grunerite or brown asbestos and contain iron and magnesium [Mukher-
jee, 2012]. It is found most frequently as a fire retardant in thermal insulation products,
asbestos insulating board (which contained up to 40 percent asbestos) and ceiling tiles
[Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, 2007]. Like the other forms of amphibole
asbestos, it has also needle-like fibers.
2.2.2.2
Crocidolite [Na2Fe32+Fe23+Si8O22(OH)2]
One of the various type from amphibole group, crocidolite takes the form of blue, straight
fibers and has a sodium iron magnesium silicate (Na Mg Fe Si) [Mukherjee, 2012]. Crocido-
lite is the fibrous form of the amphibole riebeckite which is perceived as a blue fiber under a
microscope [Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, 2007]. Therefore it is also known
as "blue" asbestos. Several asbestos studies suggest crocidolite may be liable for more deaths
than any other type of asbestos for the reason that its fibers are so thin, about the diameter of a
20
strand of hair. When airborne, these fibers can be breathe in easily and stuck fast in the lining
of the lungs. Once inside the body, the fibers do not break down easily [Mukherjee et al,
1996]. This can lead to potentially life-threatening lungs and abdominal conditions, including
Lung cancer, mesothelioma and asbestosis.
2.2.2.3
Anthophyllite [(Mg,Fe)7Si8O22(OH)2]
Anthophyllite asbestos perceived to have high potency in the carcinogenesis of lung cancer and
low potency in carcinogenesis of mesothelioma in comparison with the other types of asbestos as
it is formed by the breakdown of talc in ultramafic rocks in the presence of water and carbon
dioxide as a prograde metamorphic reaction [Meurman et al., 1994]. The anthophyllite was used
in asbestos cement and for insulation, roofing material etc. [Feininger, 2003].
2.2.2.4
Tremolite [Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2]
A form of amphibole asbestos, which is liable for many asbestos-related diseases as it is
boasts sharp needle like fibers that easily enters the respiratory system when airborne.
Approximately 36,500 tonnes of tremolite asbestos are mined annually in India. It is other-
wise only found as a contaminant as this material is toxic and inhaling the fibers can lead to
asbestosis, lung cancer and both pleural and peritoneal mesothelioma [Ansari et al, 2005].
2.2.2.5
Actinolite [Ca2(Mg,Fe)5Si8O22(OH)2]
Actinolite is an amphibole silicate mineral, commonly found in metamorphic rocks. Like
other types of amphibole asbestos, it also consists of long, sharp fibers and its make up is very
similar to that of another amphibole variety i.e. tremolite asbestos. Some forms of actinolite
are used as gemstones [GIA, 1988].
Fine fibers are expected higher to be breathe in than granular fibers for the reason that they
remain suspended in the air for longer time period. The fine fibers that are created when
asbestos is handled can penetrate deep into the lung where they can cause disease. All six
types of asbestos vary in ¿ber size and length. The longer and ¿ner the ¿ber, the bigger the
danger if breathe in. Crocidolite and amosite asbestos which belongs to the amphibole group
have been identi¿ed as most dangerous [Van der Perk, 2007]. Their long needle-like ¿bers
can easily get through physically to the respiratory tract or breathing pipe and lung and in
addition are most likely to cause serious health problems. Chrysotile asbestos which belongs
21
to the serpentine group is thicker due to the curly nature of the ¿bres, and unable to penetrate
as far. The visible fibers are themselves each composed of millions of microscopic "fibrils"
that can be released by abrasion and other processes [Gee and Greenberg, 2002]. However,
there is scientifically consensus that chrysotile asbestos is carcinogenic, and can cause cancer
to the lungs, thyroid system and even the ovary [IARC, 2012; WHO, 2014].
2.3
Serpentine and Amphibole Crystal structure and shape
Toxicity highly depends on shape and size of the crystals. The crystal structures of the two
main asbestos forming minerals, the serpentine and amphibole are surprisingly very different.
The amphiboles are "chain silicates" in which S
i
O
4
tetrahedron are linked to form bands four
tetrahedral wide and very ling. These bands runs parallel to asbestos fiber axis. Amphibole
crystals are longer relative to their width [Gravatt et al., 1978].
Figure 2: Amphiboles crystals structure
The serpentine minerals are "layered silicates" in which S
i
O
4
tetrahedron are linked to thin
sheets of great lateral extent. The tetrahedral all point in the same direction. When the length
is extremely long compared with the width, the crystals are called asbestiform or fibrous
[Virta, 2001; Gravatt et al., 1978].
Figure 3: Serpentine crystals structure
Unlike serpentine, amphibole's have a gradational transition from blocky to prismatic to
acicular to asbestiform. This gradational change makes it difficult to distinguish between
asbestiform and non-asbestiform amphibole particles under the microscope. [Virta, 2001;
National Bureau of Standards, 1979; Gravatt et al., 1978]
22
2.4
Asbestos deposits in India
There are large number of asbestos products manufacturing industries in India, both in small and
large scale sectors. These industries are spread over in about fifteen major states. Nearly sixty
units are in operation till date. India hosts nearly 673 small scale asbestos mining and milling
facilities and 33 large scale asbestos manufacturing plants including 17 asbestos cement product
manufacturing plants and 16 other than asbestos cement product manufacturing plants [Dave and
Beckett, 2005; Ansari et al., 2007]. On the other hand, significant amount of small and unor-
ganized companies are also located around the major urban centers [Biswas, 1999]. According to
Indian Bureau of Mines Minerals Yearbook 2011, there were about 75 plants engaged in the
production of asbestos products in the country and these are mainly located in Rajasthan (Ajmer,
Bhilwara, Udaipur, Rajsamand), Jharkhand (Roro), Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Andra
Pradesh (Pulivendla) [Subramanian and Madhavan, 2005].
Mineral: Asbestos
Production
All India Production
2011-2012
276 tonnes
2012-2013
387 tonnes
Public Sector
-
Private Sector
2011-2012
276 tonnes
2012-2013
387 tonnes
Overall increase/decrease in production in 2012-
2013 over 2011-2012
40.22%
Table 1: Asbestos Production (Quantity), 2011-12 and 2012-13 (By Sectors)
According to Indian Bureau of Mines Mineral Yearbook 2013 on asbestos, the overall production
of asbestos in 2012-2013 was 387 tons of different variety of asbestos which increased by about
40.22 per cent as compared to the previous year 2011-2012. All the mines are owned and operated
by private companies [Indian Bureau of Mines Mineral Yearbook, 2013].
As shown in the figure 4, Rajasthan alone contributes nearly 62 per cent of the total Indian
production of asbestos, which is industrially processed within the state itself [Indian Bureau
of Mines Minerals Yearbook, 2013]. Most of the Indian asbestos deposits belong to the
tremolite-actinolite variety. It occurs in tremolite-actinolite schists, amphibolites and meta-
morphosed basic and ultra-basic rocks. [Ban asbestos India, 2007].
23
Mining of asbestos is banned in India through a series of orders. In June 1986 a ban on
expansion of area of existing asbestos mines was placed in the country. The letter stated -
"Asbestos mining has deleterious effects on the health of the workers and exposes them to
diseases like Silicosis and Pneumoconiosis etc, no expansion in the mining of Asbestos
should henceforth be permitted". In March 1989 the ban was further extended to mining of
those minerals as well where asbestos as contamination was found in substantial quantities
and finally since 1993 all mining of asbestos has been banned [Sreedhar and Alag, 2014]
Leases of all operational mines expired by 2005. 3 mines in Andhra Pradesh continue opera-
tions and report production. No any action has been taken by the government authorities to
enforce the regulations, as well as no health and safety information was made available for the
workers [Gupta, 2015].
24
Figure 4: Asbestos mines in India (
www.mapsofindia.com
)
Excerpt out of 73 pages
- scroll top
Details
- Quote paper
- , 2015, Asbestos Exposure in India, Hamburg, Bedey Media GmbH, https://www.anchor-publishing.com/document/313270
Comments