Translation of ICT for Education towards a Knowledge Society

Kamei, Machunwangliu

Excerpt

Chapter 1

Introduction

Defining Information and Communication Technology

"Information Technology (IT) is originally a technology of storing and retrieving

knowledge or data i.e., on computers. Communication technology (CT) is a technology

of both/either `as a process [or transmission], by which A sends a message [data] to B

upon whom it has an effect' and/or `as a negotiation and exchange of meaning', which is

widely known or separately evolved as broadcasting or mass communications and

telecommunications. The very critical technology to realize such a convergence is the

advent of Internet, which enables to transmit, record, store, retrieve knowledge, data,

images (e.g., broadcasting) and even voice (e.g., telecommunication), particularly

worldwide on an instant or real- time base as two-way communications for both a one-to-

one and one-to- multiple" (Kim 2002, p1).

Asabere and Enguah (2012) define ICT as the tools, facilities, processes, and

equipment that provide the required environment with the physical infrastructure and the

services for the generation, transmission, processing, storing and disseminating of

information in all forms including voice, text, data, graphics and video. The Association

of African Universities (2000,p3) defines ICT as "a shorthand for the computers, software,

networks, satellite links and related systems that allow people to access, analyse, create,

exchange and use data, information and knowledge in ways that, until recently, were

almost unimaginable. It refers to the infrastructure that brings people together in different

places and time zones, with multimedia tools for data, information, and knowledge

management in order to expand the range of human capabilities." The definition of ICT for

the purpose of this thesis will focus mainly on computer and internet based technologies; it

will also include television and satellite technology like EDUSAT. Lim and Chai, (2004)

talk about ICT as a tool in the process of education in the following ways:

1. Informative tool: It provides vast amount of data in various formats

such as audio, video, documents.

2. Situating tool: It creates situations, which the student experiences in

real life. Thus, simulation and virtual reality is possible.

3. Constructive tool: To manipulate the data and generate analysis.

4. Communicative tool: It can be used to remove communication barriers

such as that of space and time.

Socio-economic, cultural, time and geographical barriers are main challenges faced in

pursuing higher education (Bhattacharya and Sharma, 2007). Innovative use of ICT can

help in filling this chasm. Economy and social development of a country depends a lot on

its education sector. ICT has the potential to boost the education sector of a country by

providing cost effective, quality education by overcoming human resources; time and

distance barriers. ICT enables sharing of best practices and best course content in related

fields which can enhance pedagogy. It allows universities to reach disadvantaged groups

and new international educational markets. Some believe that democratization of education

can be achieved by ICT enhanced education which calls for skilled labor force (McGorry,

2002; Cholin, 2005; Mehta and Kalra, 2006; Agarwal, 2006 and Sinko, 2011). In

developing countries like India, education is regarded as an important bridge of social,

economic and political mobility (Amutabi and Oketch, 2003; UNESCO, 2011).

In the present Knowledge society, the concept of lifelong learners has developed as

the shelf life of information has reduced. ICT gives access to latest knowledge and

information (Plomp, Pelgrum & Law, 2007; Butcher, 2010 and Shan Fu, 2013). Education

in the long run increases the productive skills and earning power of a person (Kozma,

2005). ICT used in education, such as teleconferencing, email, audio conferencing,

television lessons, radio broadcasts, interactive radio counseling, interactive voice

response system, audiocassettes and CD ROMs etc can facilitate learning in this context

(Sanyal, 2001; Bhattacharya and Sharma, 2007; Castro Sánchez and Alemán, 2011; Shan

Fu, 2013). ICT becoming techno-centric, emphasizing on production and creation of

knowledge and not on people who use it; ICT leading to centralized decision-making;

acting as a political tool, strengthening the existing power balance are the debates

surrounding the use of ICT. Van der Velden (2002) talks of ICT becoming a tool of

oppression as it can increase inequalities between people owing to differences in socio-

economic impact in use of ICT. He further criticizes the policies stating that

"ICT-based knowledge systems in a development setting are often non-responsive:

not designed for or adapted to the specific information and communication needs

of users; and inflexible: static and centralized systems that do not support the

creative and democratic needs of users. These ICT applications and solutions are

biased towards the transfer of existing knowledge, for example the so-called best

practices and lessons learned from other countries and situations, over the creation

of new knowledge. Secondly, they favour the management of explicit knowledge,

the information that fits databases, forms and other formats used to manage

knowledge".

Another view point sates the role of ICT in a knowledge management culture as mainly

that of capturing, re-using, and distributing existing knowledge. Cultivating knowledge by

creating new, profitable knowledge is a costly proposition and, not affordable for most

developing countries because of the huge amount of financial and educational investment

needed. As such some fear that knowledge society based on the commoditization of

knowledge may thus well be a scenario in which developing countries restructure their

economies to adapt to the needs of `western' knowledge economies, becoming more

dependent on `western' scientific and technical knowledge.

The conceptualization of knowledge as commodity however is a limited and limiting

perspective.

The concept of Knowledge Society and ICT in Higher Education

Robert E. Lane (1966) coined the term `knowledgeable society' a society having its roots

in epistemology and the logic of inquiry. Knorr-Cetina (1999) states that "it is a society

permeated with knowledge cultures, the whole set of structures and mechanisms that serve

knowledge and unfold with its articulation". Knowledge industries are recognized in the

field of education, research and development, communication media, information

machines and services. Butcher (2010) states that ICT is the pillar that will lead education

and innovation dynamics towards the Knowledge Society. Clark (1983) maintained that

social dynamics in higher education is dependent on the expansion of knowledge. Hooker

(2010) and Tapper (2010) consider that a Knowledge based society is dependent on

Information and Communication Technology (ICT), Education, Training and Innovation.

Growth of research based knowledge in higher education institution is creating a situation

where this development changes the social dynamics of the higher education institutions,

national systems of higher education and relationships between national higher education

systems. This growth is taking place simultaneously with the development of modern

knowledge societies. Castells and Himanen (2002) mentioned that the knowledge society

is organized in and through networks. According to them, successful companies use

networking as a model to organize their industrial production, research and development

activities and cooperation with other partners (including universities). They assert that

networks illuminate the way power is organized in general. The role of higher education in

this context is seen crucial in the development of global information societies.

Various debates in academic fields and policy related documents give interesting

arguments in this regard. It has been noticed that there is a shift from the linear models of

communication (sender message channel recipient) towards more collective and

reciprocal approach. It is no longer a hierarchical `sender' to `recipient' order, but rather

there is role reversal in the communication process and both add to the content and

meaning of the message. In ICT enabled communication process, the message does not

remain fixed, but changes as it flows among different actors as each comprehend and

respond to the message in different ways. This shift in communication loop in the

Information network is an indicator for the research/policy link. A message may be picked

up or missed by actors depending on how each actor relates to it. "Although most ideas in

the information age are communicated in written form, often electronically, the

interpersonal aspect of communication is still extremely important. Even electronic

communication is based on the notion of interpersonal relations. The research/policy link

is in the advantageous position of being able to draw on both micro and macro

perspectives of interpersonal communication and advocacy, as its field ranges from

individual output and opinions to macro concerns for the distribution of ideas, power and

resources on a global level" (cf. Hudson, in Lewis and Wallace, 2000).

Communication and knowledge transfer systems are ingrained in cultural and social

context, and technology is `translated' in different ways between contexts (McMaster et

al., 1997 on actor network theory). This implies that the cultural and social associations

will influence the way ICT are understood and accepted (Peterson, 1998). In turn, this has

measureable effects on the way policies are translated. Higher education policies "for the

knowledge society" at work in the institutional level needs to look into:

How individual higher education institutions participate in the discourse

about the knowledge society.

The dialogue with the State, external "stakeholders" and peers.

Development of internal institutional policies in connection with the

knowledge society talk. The impact on curriculum, research and outreach.

The entrepreneurial or academic enterprising university

Universities as actors in knowledge regions

Valcke (2003) recommends the following lists of `ways forward' to promote the integrated

use of ICT in higher education based on a critical policy analysis of the Flemish context.

He distinguishes between macro-level issues, pertaining to the regional, national and

international of individual educational institutes and meso-level issues that focus on intra-

institutional elements.

Macro-level

· Foster collaboration between institutes

· `Seed money' is crucial to start up innovations in higher education

· Accompanying measures should also be supported, and this to a very

large extent. The latter is especially true for support actions such as

dissemination, expertise exchange;

· conditions that promote collaboration between institutes, between

Higher professional education and universities, the application of

industry standards;

· staff training as an integral part of projects;

· Involve the existing umbrella organisations to promote the ICT based

innovations;

· Start up and promote national evaluation and monitoring activities;

· Redefine innovation project tenders that pursue Educational innovation

based on ICT;

· Define internal and external quality assurance cycles.

Meso-level

· Define an educational policy and related ICT policy;

· Foster collaboration within the higher education institute (between

faculties/departments);

· Focus on initiatives that are scalable;

· Extrapolate the administrative, logistics, technical consequences of ICT

projects. This implies that the projects should start as early as possible

to negotiate with departments that `own' crucial information about

students, staff data, rosters, calendars, ...

· Set up an internal quality control cycle;

· Foster collaboration with other higher education institutes; e.g., in the

context of `associations';

· Invest in a significant way in central support (helpdesk, training,

documentation, registration, authentication ...);

· Discuss and determine the consequences of educational ICT use for the

human resource management: incentives for staff, staff development,

specialisation, new job profiles, etc.

Wolf (2001), Drori et al. (2003), Butcher (2010) and Etzkowitz et.al (2012) identify

Universities as the main players in the knowledge society as they generate and diffuse

knowledge. They supply human capital for the economies that are ever more dependent on

knowledge. Universities need to coordinate with knowledge intensive industries. National

policies for encouraging knowledge generation, knowledge acquisition, knowledge

diffusion, and the exploitation of knowledge have become the most pressing priorities in

the science, research and education policy regimes. The task before higher education

researchers regarding the knowledge society is the critical evaluation of a situation in

which our methodological gaze has become as meaningful when turned inward--to higher

education itself--as when we purport to study contexts and phenomena outside our walls

(Bourdieu, 2004; Schwalje, 2011 and Etzkowitz et.al 2012).

Indian Scenario

Satellite in education started as Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) in

1975-76 in India. EDUSAT brought satellite connectivity to large parts of rural India. The

first steps in India for utilizing ICT potential towards promotion of education and research

in the country was through ERNET- a Society under the Ministry of IT&C in the

Department of Information Technology. The Tenth five year Plan of India emphasized the

use of ICTs to bring about a transformation of higher education sector to increase its

relevance and develop closer links with the job sector and to increase the quality of

teaching, research, business and community extension functions including life- long

learning. These visions and policies were further implemented in the Eleventh Five Year

Plan with an allocation of Rs.5000 crores for providing ICT infrastructure. 11th Plan

proposed that "Consortium for Educational Communication Centre (CEC) will set up a

technology enabled system of mass higher education by taking advantage of Vyas 24-

hours Education Channel for one way communication, EDUSAT network for two-way

communication and Internet for `any time anywhere' education. The thrust areas will

include strengthening of the existing media centres, setting up of new media centres in

those States where no centres exist, strengthening of the concepts of packaging knowledge

in video and e-content form in need-based subject areas, transforming the CEC and media

centre into a virtual university system" (11th FYP, 2008).

The National Knowledge Commission (NKC) focused on five key areas of enhancing

access to knowledge, reinvigorating institutions where knowledge concepts are imparted,

creating a world class environment for creation of knowledge, promoting applications of

knowledge for sustained and inclusive growth and using knowledge applications in

efficient delivery of public services. NKC a high-level advisory body to the Prime Minister

of India had the objective of transforming India into a knowledge society. In its endeavor

to transform the knowledge landscape of the country, the National Knowledge

Commission submitted around 300 recommendations on 27 focus areas during its three

and a half year term. While the term of the NKC has come to an end, the implementation

of NKC's recommendations is currently underway at the Central and State levels. (National

Knowledge Commission, 2008) NKC has five focus areas:

Access easy access to knowledge

Concepts all levels and forms of education

Creation effective creation of knowledge

Application of knowledge systems

Services for better delivery.

In Higher Education, National Knowledge Commission (NKC) has focused on the three

crucial aspects of expansion, excellence and inclusion. Expand capacity by establishing

new universities and lowering entry barriers for setting up the same - Attain a gross

enrolment ratio of at least 15 per cent by 2015.

NKC Impact - follow up on NKC recommendations: The final Report of NKC

(2009) contains the recommendations submitted by the Commission.

Higher and technical education: To expand capacity and improve quality of higher

education, the Government has sanctioned the setting up of 15 new Central

Universities and 14 new Universities based on world-class standards. The

Government is in the process of setting up eight Indian Institutes of Technology

(IITs), 10 National Institutes of Technology (NIT), 20 Indian Institutes of

Information Technology (IIITs) as far as possible in the Public-Private Partnership

mode, three Indian Institutes of Science Education and Research (IISERs), seven

Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs) and two Schools of Planning and

Architecture (SPA). The Committee for Rejuvenation and Renovation of Higher

Education has been set up for the review of UGC/AICTE. The Science and

Engineering Research Board Bill 2008 has been introduced in the Parliament. The

National Mission on Education through Information and Communication

Technology (ICT) has been launched to leverage the potential of ICT in the

teaching learning process with an aim to enhance the GER in Higher Education by

5 percentage points by the end of the XI Plan. Under this Mission 20,000

institutions of Higher Education and nearly 10,000 University Departments will be

provided connectivity, beginning with a minimum of 5 Mbps for each one of them.

The Central Government will bear 75 per cent of the connectivity charges for 5

years, even for institutions not belonging to it. The estimated cost of the Mission is

Rs. 4612 crore.

Integrated national knowledge network: During 2008-09 Rs. 100 crore has been

allocated for the National Knowledge Network (NKN) which proposes

interconnecting all knowledge institutions in the country with gigabit capabilities,

for sharing resources and research.

Translation: The Government has approved the setting up of a National

Translation Mission (NTM) with an outlay of Rs. 75 crore.

Libraries: Based on the recommendations of NKC, the Department of Culture

(DoC) proposed setting up a National Mission for Libraries (NML) in the XI Plan

as a Central Sector Scheme. The NML will cover libraries under the DoC and the

activities under it will include: National Census of Libraries; Modernization

including networking of Libraries under DoC; establishing Knowledge Centres

and Digital Libraries.

Intellectual Property Rights: The IP Office has put the relevant acts, rules, manuals

on its website and there is no restriction on access to these materials. Digitization

of all patent records is underway. Forty-five thousand patent records are already

on the website. An IP Appellate Board has been set up for trademarks,

geographical indications and patents. DIPP is examining the issue of sui-generic

legislation for protection of traditional knowledge. Process is underway to

revitalize and reform polytechnics through industry linkage and teacher

development, establish 210community colleges and 700 polytechnics; and to

strengthen Open Universities and reform statutory bodies; scale up SAKSHAT as

the education portal for 50 crore people.

The National Knowledge Network (NKN) aspires to interconnect all universities, all

technical institutions, all medical institutions, all agricultural institutions, all related

Research and Development institutions, all libraries and all Universities for optimal

utilization of resources to give a major push to research and spread of quality education. A

budget allocation of Rs. 502 crores was made in 2008-09 for the National Mission on

Education through ICT. The attempt is to pool all teachers and experts in the country to

bring their collective wisdom for the benefit of every Indian learner and, thereby, reducing

the digital divide. Under this Mission, a proper balance between content generation,

research in critical areas relating to imparting of education and connectivity for integrating

our knowledge with the advancements in other countries is to be attempted. The NKN

comprises of an ultra-high speed CORE (multiples of 10 Gbps), complimented with a

distribution layer at appropriate speeds. Participating institutions at the Edge will connect

to NKN seamlessly at speeds of 1 Gbps or higher. Advanced applications in areas such as

Health, Education, Science and Technology, Grid Computing, Bio informatics,

Agriculture, and Governance will be an integral part of NKN. The entire network will

seamlessly integrate with the global scientific community at multiple gigabits per second

speed. Some of the salient features of the NKN are:

· Establishing Connectivity for Knowledge and information sharing.

· Enabling Collaborative Research in emerging areas such as Climate

Modelling.

· Facilitating distance education in specialized fields such as medicine,

emerging high tech areas covering info-bio-nano technology.

· Facilitating an ultra high speed e-governance backbone for information

sharing.

Another initiative, National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL) is a

Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) initiative to promote quality

engineering education in the country through video and web based learning material. The

seven Indian Institute of Technology (IITs) and Indian Institute of Science (IISc)

Bangalore had been entrusted to produce web-based and video based courses in 5

disciplines of Engineering (Civil/ Mechanical/ Electrical/ Electronics and Communication/

Computer Science and Engineering) as well as in Sciences, Humanities and Social

Sciences, Management areas. A total of 120 web-based courses and 115 video-based have

been produced in these disciplines in the first phase of the project. These courses are being

used as supplementary material, and also for training teachers in any institution. The broad

aim of the project NPTEL is to facilitate the competitiveness of Indian industry in the

global markets through improving the quality and reach of engineering education. The

operational objective of NPTEL is to make high quality learning material available to

students of engineering institutions across the country by exploiting the advances in

information and communication technology. The target group for this project consists of

students and faculty of institutions offering undergraduate engineering programmes in

India.

The National Mission on Education through Information and Communication Technology

(NME-ICT) is foreseen to influence the potential of ICT, in teaching and learning process

through content generation and connectivity. UGC-Infonet Consortia of INFLIBNET

provides numerous e-books and e-journals to higher education institutes. IIT-Bombay has

started the program of CDEEP (Centre for Distance Engineering Education Program) as

emulated classroom interaction through the use of real time interactive satellite

technology. Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) is leveraging satellite,

television, and Internet technologies to offer online courses. Private sector participation

like HP's Technology for Teaching Grant has transformed the ICT infrastructure in

institutes like Anna University and Jadavpur University. In 2007, the Distance Education

Council (DEC) allowed all allowed all premier institutes in the country to offer online

courses. Since then IIM-C, IIM-B, IIM-K, XLRI and other management institutes have

started offering courses in association with private players like Hughes, Reliance, NIIT,

etc. IIT-Kanpur has developed Brihaspati, an open source e-learning platform. An

increasing number of private players like Hughes Global Education, Manipal Education

Group, Centum Learning, UEI Global, Shiv Nadar University, etc. are offering online

education courses in association with leading Central and State Universities leveraging

with good ICT infrastructure. MHRD also set up Yashpal- Committee for Advise on

Renovation and Rejuvenation of Higher Education. The Committee in its 2009 report

covered issues of universities/higher education including admission of students to faculty

evaluation, research work linked to national/social concerns to networking of universities,

R&D Labs and industries. The report mentioned that the prevailing environment does not

emphasize on application work. Yashpal- Committee stresses on the importance of both

theoretical and applied learning. It recommends the use of local data and resources to make

learning from curriculum more applicable and interesting. The report also promotes the

idea of a university as a meeting place of all knowledge through inter-disciplinarily

learning. The committee stresses the importance of integrating teaching with research and

research with teaching.

ICT for Education (ICT4E) the Problem zone

Considering the stress made on Knowledge network through ICT in various policies,

policy-makers and stakeholders in Higher education need to examine the challenges and

constraints of integrating ICT4E. Information is considered as the main capital for

knowledge societies wherein ICT is expected to be the catalyst in Higher Education. ICT

infrastructure alone does not fulfill the vision and policies as highlighted in policies.

ICT4E would require a shift in instructional paradigm. Castells (2000) highlights the

knowledge gap "the use of the Internet, both in school and in professional life, could

amplify the social differences rooted in class, education, gender and ethnicity". The issue

Castells mentions is that digital divide leading to knowledge gap is rising because of the

manner in which technology diffusion is taking place. "Key urban centers, globalized

activities, and the higher-educated social groups are being included in the Internet-based

global networks, while most regions and most people are switched off" (Castells, 2000).

Higher education institutes need to instill in their students not just `operationalism' but

deeper understanding of their social and cultural context. There is the fear that

understanding, insight, wisdom and critique are being supplanted by skill, outcome,

information and flexibility (cf. Barratt, 1979; Midgley, 1989). On the other hand, ICT is

associated with empowerment (D'Allesandro and Dosa, 2001), enhancing social

connectivity accessibility to education, public and government services (UNESCO, 2011;

Katz et al., 2001).

One of the challenges for the internal development of higher education institutions is

created by the implementation of rapidly changing information technologies. Higher

education institutions are not only contributing in knowledge advancement but are also

reliant on the information network and subject to the restrictions of ICT. Both students and

teachers need to re-assess their notion about learning and instruction. Therefore, the issues

around ICT4E are not only oriented to technology but are also towards attitude in

pedagogy and culture of the institutes. ICT in education necessitates trained support staff

to aid in pedagogy (Laurillard 2004; Hasenbegovic et al. 2006 and Tezci, E., 2011a). As

much as ICT is reconstituting the higher education scenario and its stakeholders and its

delivery mechanism, there are arguments about the role of higher education in this

juncture. A school of thought supports the notion of universities being industry oriented

(Eggleston 1994, Kohli and Health 2001, Liu and Jiang 2001, Roberts 2000, Todd Davey

et al.2011). But Williams (2000) writes that universities are already too focused on

employment and industry, which is detrimental to their teaching and research. He is

representative of a more idealistic school that argues that universities should help build

pure knowledge, social capital and the capacity for critical thinking (Aronowitz and

Giroux 1991, Conceicao et al. 2001, Freire 1972, Giroux 1983, Reffell and Whitworth

2002). Reffell and Whitworth (2002) have attributed ICT education being unsuccessful

owing to its technocratic stance and lack of local and real world problems

contextualization.

Rationalized and modernistic approach not suitable for a country can cause

disruptive tensions between local and foreign academics (Kelegai and Middleton, 2002;

World Bank, 2011). However, ICT skills are considered equally important to reading,

writing and arithmetic (Bohme, 2002). The impact of ICT in higher education can be seen

in terms of the extent to which technology use enables individuals of these institutes to

participate and be a part/ node in the networked knowledge society. As Haddon (2000)

would put it: `the extent to which ICTs enhance our abilities to fulfill active roles in

society, or being without them constitutes a barrier to that end'. Understanding the actual

functions of knowledge society requires scholars, policymakers and the public to recognize

contemporary models for deployment of knowledge and distribution of technologies.

Issues involved:

1. The social basis of knowledge emphasizes:

(i) Knowledge and the value of knowledge are rooted in social relations; (ii) Knowledge

surfaces as a fresh code of social classification, motility and status; (iii) Knowledge and

the circulation of knowledge is linked to political economy of government in the triple

helix dynamics of university-industry-government.

2. Communications and information technologies diminish the effect of distance

making possible `action at a distance in real time' (Peters and Besley, 2006):

(i) transmission of knowledge increasing speed, circulation and exchange; (ii) the

development of digital archive and digital representations of all symbolic and cultural

resources; (iii) the radical concordance of image, text and sound, and development of

new information/knowledge infrastructures; (iv) the emergence of a global media

network linked with a global communications network; (v) the emergence a global

consumer culture and the rise of global edutainment media conglomerates.

3. New geographies (`spaces') of knowledge in the international knowledge system:

(i) Investment in human capital and key competencies becomes a source of value in

knowledge-based institutions, with an emphasis on knowledge being locked into

systems or processes; (ii) `Synchronous face-to-face interactions matter for transmitting

knowledge' (Quah, 2002) so sources of innovation lie in networks of social

relationships, that is, knowledge networks (Cooke, 2002); (iii) Geographical clustering

of new economic activity; (iv)Emergence of global science networks, strategic research

collaborations, and university consortia.

4. Knowledge, freedom and development. Two powerful narratives of the modern age:

`knowledge as freedom' and `development as freedom'. Critical question concern

access, distribution and ownership: (i) Open source & open access; (ii) Free and open

public science (the intellectual commons); (iii) `Knowledge for Development' (World

Bank) vs `Development as Freedom' (Amartya Sen); (iv) Development is less like a

continuous, unbroken, linear story, separated by invariant stages and more like a non-

chronological, networked communication system based upon a layered complexity -

`free resources have been crucial to innovation and creativity' (Lessig, 2002).

Universities have been at the forefront to develop ICT and must be at the forefront in using

them (UNESCO, 2003):

· In access: "distance" and "virtual" institutions allow for growing numbers

of students to access higher education, in more remote areas and at any time

of day and night.

· In teaching and learning: whose efficiency, many agree, is increased by

ICTs. Courses are enriched by videos and various other multimedia devices.

Students' learning experience is considerably enhanced because they live

the situation from different view points and can compare data online.

Moreover, learning being learner-centred rather than teacher-centred (self-

tuition), they are able to match the learning they receive with their

individual learning styles, capacities and speed. Learning is based on the

capacity "to find, access and apply knowledge to problem- solving" (Salmi,

2001).

· For academic staff: with the use of educational software, teachers may be

seen as serving as guides rather than lecturers and transmitters of

knowledge. It is also believed that ICTs are a great time saver for teachers.

However, this is controversial as, even if fewer academic staff is needed,

they have to be trained to use ICTs and work with technology specialists:

more technical, specialized staff should, therefore, be hired.

· In matters of costs: although investment in equipment and in initial course

development is more costly, it is believed that teaching will eventually

become cheaper, as it will in the long run attract more students, necessitate

less administration, less teaching staff, less travel, etc.

Universities must determine what they will implement, how much, where and what

consequences they expect from the use of ICTs. Hence assessment is required to

understand educational policies towards increasing ICT connectivity for education and

towards the systematic integration of ICT. When it comes to specific policies on ICT in

education, the elements that need to be reviewed include Allocation of funds; Hardware

allotted in a cost effective manner, targeted student-computer ratios, the configuration and

placement of ICT facilities, and technical support for students and teachers; Softwares

used and Service providers; Teachers (are they first generation users?); Adaptation of

curriculum accordingly; Staff to support computers and related technology in schools;

Network infrastructure for teachers and students to gain access to knowledge and share

information; Infrastructure development; Interoperation of information systems;

Development of technological standards; Research and development; ICT education and

training; National ICT development coordination; International interface and cooperation;

Access to infrastructure; Access to information; Monitoring the use of ICT and

Measurement of the impact of ICT.

Chapter 2

Knowledge society and ICT in Education narrative

The Knowledge Society Discourse

The growing importance of knowledge, research, innovation and evolving perspectives on

expertise with the usage of Information Communication Technologies (ICT) are changing

the sociology of knowledge in the globalized world. The terminologies associated are

Knowledge Society, Knowledge Economy, Information Society, Learning Society,

Network society. Nico Stehr mentions that Knowledge Society was first used by Lane

(1966), as the ``great optimism of the early 1960s which suggests that science would

somehow allow for the possibility of a society in which common sense would be replaced

by scientific reasoning'' (Stehr 1994). Drucker (1969), cites knowledge ``as the foundation

of economy and social action''. Robin Mansell and Stehr further developed this concept in

the 1990s. Knorr Cetina (1997, 2001) considers knowledge society as one in which the

culture of knowledge permeates to the society as a whole and not one in which production

and flow of knowledge is limited to a few privileged. Machlup (1962) defines knowledge

as the ability to apply human intellect in drawing meaning from various information

sources. Peters (2007) mentions the dispute in terminologies and ideologies associated

(Knowledge Society by sociologists, Knowledge Economy by economists and Learning

Society by educators) taking place in the policy regimes. The terms `Information society'

and `post industrial society' appeared with the works of Bell (1973), Machlup (1962),

Portat (1977) and Rubin et al. (1986). Castells (1998, 2000, 2001), Melody (1987), Melody

and Mansell (1986), Mosco and Wasko (1988), Stehr (1992, 2002), Sussman (1999) and

Webster (2002a, 2002b) have contributed to the ideation of information or global

knowledge society have further developed this concept in the context of sociology and

political economy.

Knowledge and change in society are connected to Learning Society and Knowledge

Economy. Knowledge in this case is applicable to all spheres of societies with very less

distinction between formal and non-formal education (Hutchins 1968; Huse´n 1974;

Mansell, 2012; UNESCO, 2013). Lifelong learning for advancing one's career by learning

how to learn becomes a requisite. Learning is not the privilege of an elite class anymore

(UNESCO, 2013). Machlup (1962) traced the economic essence of knowledge production

to 1960s. In his consolidated structure of knowledge industry he subscribed to education as

the most important sector. Knowledge industries are identified in the field of education,

research and development, communication media, information machines and services. The

officially received view on the knowledge economy the view that emanates from the

world policy institutions like the World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF) and

OECD tends to support the shift to a global knowledge economy.

Knowledge Society literature reflects scattered view points and represents a still

developing field. "This is apparent in a lack of consensus on basic terminology and in fluid

and disparate research agendas reflecting for example, technological, political, economic,

social or educational perspectives on the Information Society. There are also differences

between those who would view it as representing epochal-type change and perceive the

emergence of different types of networked informational societies, and those who maintain

that there is no novel, post-industrial society and that changes in occupational structure and

related developments simply reflect continuity with the past. Moreover, for all those who

proclaim the Information Society as providing the answer to social inequality, poverty and

unemployment there are others who would regard it as likely to widen the gap between

information haves and have-nots and to maintain existing socio-economic disparities"

(Sarker, 2001; Perkman, M., et al., 2013 and Ohiagu, 2013).

Harold Adams (1951) says that communication technology drives history. "A medium of

communication has an important influence on the dissemination of knowledge ... and it

becomes necessary to study its characteristics in order to appraise its influence in its

cultural setting". He talks of communication revolution leading to "digital age" and an

"information society." Societies and cultures according to him would be influenced by the

communication processes and the associated institutions. Some pertinent questions which

arise from these discussions are:

1. Does the nature of knowledge production change societies, cultures and

economics?

2. Does the Knowledge Society confirm the existence of a knowledge community

whose members share a common stock of knowledge and more or less similar

experiences?

3. What are Communications Models for Knowledge Creation and Knowledge

Society

Higher education policies for knowledge society at work: the global level

ICT in Higher education policies of major international organizations promoting

knowledge society projects with a global scope are seen at work in United Nations (UN)

and its agencies (UNDP, UNESCO), the World Bank, OECD, the International

Association of Universities, World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS),

International Telecommunication Union (ITU). The Arab Human Development (AHDR),

several of South East Asia models and European Union's (EU) overarching strategy to

cope with the challenges of globalization reflect policies at work in the regional level. The

policy need and requirement however are contextual and region specific. The gap between

those able, and those unable, to participate in the global information society is currently

termed as the "digital divide". Unfortunately, this digital divide is evident within a country

like India as well as several other developing countries. Several documents of UNESCO

stress the important role that higher education institutions are to play in knowledge

societies, "based on radical changes in the traditional patterns of knowledge production,

diffusion and application.''

UNESCO has come up with "ICT in Education Policy" for Asia-Pacific region where the

main emphasis is to reduce the digital divide while improving the education quality at the

same time. The major trend seen in global education scenario is to shift the focus from

teacher oriented learning to student oriented learning with the use of ICT. The emphasis is

also on problem solving skills of the students where they actively control and engage in

their own learning. Knowledge construction with easy access to information is emphasized

rather than just replicating knowledge source. This has/can be facilitated with different

forms of ICT as reflected in various policy documents hence giving more choice to policy

makers. In 2003 UNDP report for the Arab World with a higher education sectors

characterized the region as knowledge consumer rather than knowledge producer. Absence

of scientific research in higher education is attributed to seclusion of these academic

institutes from the academic global community. Contextualized ICT education policy in

relation to the country's need should help in solving this issue.

Governments have linked nation's economic development with universities having

access to latest technologies (Gibbons et al. 1994, Nowotny et al. 2001; Etzkowitz et al.

2000 and ITU, 2011). Gibbons et al. (1994) talks of new Mode 2 form of knowledge

production replacing the traditional one, Mode 1. Mode 1 knowledge is academic

discipline oriented, Mode 2 knowledge is application oriented. It is interdisciplinary and

more socially relevant. Etzkowitz and Leydesdorff (2000) further mention the ``Triple

Helix'' of university, government and industry where academic, economic and wider

networks of social actors together constitute the triple helix knowledge dynamics.

Etzkowitz et al. (2000) mentions that transformation in production, exchange and use of

knowledge will result from internal changes in academia, state and industry. The

enterprising university can lead to economic development together with scientific research

and education (Etzkowitz 2002 in Tuunainen, 2005; Gibb, 2013, Perkman, M., et al., 2013

and Klofsten, M., 2013). Universities in the knowledge society need to become more

entrepreneurial. However, due to the emphasis on operationalism, learning terms such as

understanding, insight, wisdom and critique are being replaced by skill, outcome,

information and flexibility (Midgley, 1989; Clark, 1998; Etzkowitz et al.2012; Mevlin,

2012 and Fayolle, 2013). The challenges faced by higher education institutions in this

light are:

1. Traditional academic university versus commercialization and academic capitalism

(Slaughter and Rhoades, 2004; Bourdieu, 2004; Ylijoki, 2003; Marginson, 2006;

Mevlin, 2012 and

EUA, 2013). Academic cultures in different disciplines varies in

terms of their social applicability (Becher and Trowler, 2001; Slaughter and

Rhoades 2004; EC, 2013; Fayolle, 2013). What possibilities are available to higher

education to shape society's own sense of worthwhile knowledge, as well as

responding to the messages that come its way?

2. Does higher education with the modern technological networking have the ability

to call forth particular modes of thinking and acting in the society in which it

operates? Do the cognitive requirements stemming from these higher education

institutes contribute to the development of a more rational society?

Universities have to address the issue of academic accountability to its various

stakeholders which includes academics and governments, industry, professional

associations, students etc. This would mean not just incorporating the technical

requirements of new circumstances but seeing its relevant utility in the social and cultural

context. Today's knowledge society requires its learners to have the 21

century skills.

According to Partnership for 21st Century Skills, "People in the 21st century live in a

technology and media-suffused environment, marked by various characteristics, including:

1) access to an abundance of information, 2) rapid changes in technology tools, and 3) the

ability to collaborate and make individual contributions on an unprecedented scale. To be

effective in the 21st century, citizens and workers must be able to exhibit a range of

functional and critical thinking skills related to information, media and technology"

(Partnership for 21st Century Skills,2009).

Giddens in 1990 talked about individuals networking in greater information milieu

constructed by specialized people and later using that information in their local context.

Castells traces network society to the 1980s where global society was restructured to create

network society through the use of ICT. "In the new, informational mode of development

the source of productivity lies in the technology of knowledge generation, information

processing, and symbol communication" (Castells, 1996). Castells and Himanen (2001)

consider networks the social structure of information age. Castells considers networks as

"open structures, able to expand without limits, integrating new nodes as long as they are

able to communicate with the network, namely as long as they share the same

communication codes". According to Castells, a network-based social system is a "highly

dynamic, open system, susceptible to innovation without threatening its balance''. It is in

this context that Mansell (2012) stressed on ICT as being pivotal in the growth of

Knowledge Society. ICT is considered an empowering tool (D'Allesandro and Dosa, 2001;

UNESCO,2013), it can lead to wider social dealings and engagement enabling enhanced

access to education and its subsequent networks of public and government facilities as well

as facilitate easy and widespread access to education and other public and government

services. (Katz et al., 2001; Servon and Nelson, 2001; Neil, 2012).

Based on the above discussion, the subsequent paragraphs discuss the higher education

scenario in different regions.

Southeast Asia region: The "ICT in Education" policies of countries in the Southeast Asia

region vary greatly. While some have not yet formulated any specific visions or plans,

others are at an advanced stage of ICT integration. Following the global trend, Southeast

Asian countries are geared towards deployment of in ICT higher education. (SEAMEO,

2010) gives a report of status of ICT integration in education in Southeast Asian Countries

based on these different stages of development. The countries are categorized into three

groups.

Group 1 countries are Brunei Darussalam, Malaysia, and Singapore. These

countries are at the infusing and transforming stages for most of the dimensions of

ICT in education. In this group, Malaysia and Singapore are well-ahead on the ICT

in education journey than Brunei, especially in the dimensions of teaching and

learning pedagogies and community/partnership.

Group 2 countries are Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam. They are

mainly at the infusing stage for most of the dimensions and most of them already

have developed ICT plans and policies in education. But due to the rural-urban gap

and different levels of access to ICT infrastructure, there are still some parts of the

dimensions that are in the applying and even emerging stage. Among the countries

in this group, Thailand and Vietnam are in more advanced stages of ICT in

education than Indonesia and Philippines.

Group 3 countries are Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, and Timor Leste. Although

each of these four countries has either started to develop and implement ICT in

education plans and policies or implemented ICT in education projects on a small

scale, all of them are still at the emerging stage for most of the dimensions. The

main concern of these countries is access to ICT infrastructure, hardware and

software. In this group, Cambodia and Myanmar are at more advanced stages of

ICT in education than Lao PDR and Timor Leste.

Arab Human Development Reports: The social movements that arose in 2011 in the

Arab States have demonstrated the potential of ICT to play a catalytic role. Arab Spring

ranks among the most significant informal ICT-assisted "learning" phenomena in 2011,

whereby thousands of youth used social media accessed via their mobile phones as a

space for self-identification, self-assertion, contestation and mobilisation around

democracy, human rights and civil liberties (UNESCO, 2012). Arab Human Development

Report (AHDR, 2003) states the five pillars that could support the building of an Arab

knowledge society:

1. Guaranteeing the key freedoms of opinion, speech and assembly through good

governance bounded by the law. [...] 2. Disseminating high quality education for all.

[...] 3. Embedding and ingraining science, and building and broadening the capacity

for research and development in all societal activities. [...] 4. Shifting rapidly

towards knowledge-based production in Arab socioeconomic structures. [...]

5. Developing an authentic, broadminded and enlightened Arab knowledge model.

To fill the gap of absence of scientific research in higher education, Qatar and the United

Arab Emirates are initiating the development of R&D sectors in higher education. Qatar

Foundation for Education, Science and Community Development, Qatar has Education City,

the Qatar Science and Technology Park (QSTP) and theQatar National Research Fund

(QNRF). United Arab Emirates in creating free zones such as Knowledge Village in Dubaito

link academia to industry. Major investment in ICT has been made in this regard. The Arab

Knowledge Report 2010/2011 proceeds to the stage of laying the foundations for the

knowledge society by developing principles of dealing with the methodologies and

mechanisms of preparing future generations to actively participate in building the knowledge

society and access its vast domains. The report covers the processes of preparing and

rehabilitating Arab citizens to enhance their skills; instilling values which control and direct

their decisions and activities, and the methods and mechanisms of their empowerment.

These maximize the opportunities of their active participation in building the knowledge

society and reaping its benefits.

Europe: In European higher education, one of the most interesting processes related to

knowledge society discourse is the Bologna Process. It seeks to build European Higher

Education Area (EHEA) on the basis of international cooperation and academic exchange.

The Bologna Process is named after the Bologna Declaration, which was signed in 1999 by

ministers in charge of higher education from 29 European countries. The envisaged

European Higher Education Area will facilitate mobility of students, graduates and higher

education staff; prepare students for their future careers and for life as active citizens in

democratic societies, and support their personal development; offer broad access to high-

quality higher education, based on democratic principles and academic freedom. Work is

also undertaken in areas of broader societal relevance, such as the links between higher

education, research and innovation; equitable participation and lifelong learning (Bologna,

2009).

The network services to research and education is organized in three levels viz. the Local

Access Network to which the user is connected, the national infrastructure provided by the

national research and education network and the pan-European level network. DANTE

(Delivery of Advanced Network Technology to Europe Ltd.) organizes, manages and

provides international advanced data network services for the research community.

TERENA (the Trans-European Research and Education Networking Association) takes care

of fostering new initiatives; supporting joint work in evaluating, testing and integrating new

technologies; organizing conferences and workshops for information dissemination, and

representing the common interests and opinions of its membership. These levels of operation

in European ICT network have proved to be very successful. In ICT related educational

innovation, European higher education institutes functions on collaboration by creating

structural and functional relationships.

Africa: The Association of African Universities emphasizes on development and application

of ICT in higher to bridge the digital and economic gap. Associations of African

Universities, Inter-University Council for East Africa, and partnerships with foreign

universities assist in the development of ICT policies in African universities. Established

universities further take up the leadership role in implementing national ICT policies. South

African National Research Network (SANReN) comprises of all universities and technical

universities reaching more than 600,000 users facilitates international collaboration for the

data analysis. SANReN has dedicated connectivity to GEANT-the European network via

the satellite. This along with submarine cable SAFE connectivity will ensure South Africa's

connectivity to over 3000 research institutions world-wide. Africa's higher education is

benefitting from the ICT enabled networking and collaboration with other foreign

universities. Agence Universitaire de la Francophonie (AUF) and Partnership for Higher

Education in Africa have provided networking with France, Canada, US and some other

countries. The objective of these tie-ups is to use ICT to enable all-inclusive modernization

and growth of universities. Development Partnerships in Higher Education programme

(DELPHE) initiated by the UK Department for International Development (DFID) is another

such endeavor. Three Rwandan universities (the National University, the Kigali Institute for

Education, and the Kigali Institute for Science and Technology) and the University of

Nairobi have partnered with Google to improve access to Web-based communications for

staff and students (infoDev, 2007).

Higher education policies for knowledge society at work: the national level

India's education policies at work for knowledge society have been covered in the preceding

chapter. The following section discusses national scenarios in some countries where ICT

initiatives in the context of globalization have brought about changes in the higher education

sector.

USA: The US Government has initiated adoption of market based policies in its higher

education sector in order to make universities more efficient and effective. ICT has

enabled cross border academic programmes for both conventional universities and internet

based distance learning providers. Specific educational policies are developed by each

state; however the emphasis on 21st century skill set is seen in the education scenario. ICT

focus now is on the processes and major investments are in the area of digital curriculum

and instruction. Importance is also given on providing flexibility to learners with the use of

ICT. Funding is the main component of US ICT R&D ecosystem. Andersen and Coffey

(2011) in U.S. ICT R&D Policy Report stated that "Networking and Information

Technology R&D Program (NITRD) is the primary vehicle for the coordination of U.S.

federal investment in ICT research. While the NITRD program's funding has increased in

recent years, the problem is that much of the funding dedicated to ICT research is not

actually being used for ICT research". On the networking front National Lambda Rail

(NLR) owned and managed by a consortium of US universities and private companies has

been providing greater autonomy over research projects of the universities.

UK: British government is committed to a `knowledge economy'; there is heavy

investment on ICT infrastructure and support in the higher education sector. The stress is

also laid on virtual and lifelong learning system facilitated by ICT. Universities are trying

to incorporate flexibly of learning for its students. Dearing Report (1997) made

recommendations for training and staff development, quality assurance arrangements, the

challenges of ICT, institutional management and governance for the British higher

education sector as a `Learning Society'. Laurillard (2002) mentions that Dearing Report

emphasizes on individual personal development; importance of teaching and research in

knowledge society; and the cultural and political value of higher education all of which

points at the importance of relevance of higher education in society . White Paper The

Future of Higher Education (2003), National Professional Standards Framework (2006)

developed by the Higher Education Academy are other policy documents designed to

bring out major changes in British higher education sector to widen education and to meet

the skills requirement of global knowledge economy. (Saunders & Klemming, 2003;

Garland & Noyes, 2004; Ertmer and Otternbreit, 2010; Tezci, E., 2011a) cover ICT in

pedagogy instances where they have been used to facilitate greater flexibility in teaching

and learning process by either aiding the traditional face to face learning or by bringing

about change in methodology by supporting part time learners. ICT resources have also

been used in individual academic departments and for building consortia. Kaul in 2006

stated that "The mainstay of the British Universities today are their 270,000 foreign

students (not including EU) who pay an international fee which is substantially higher than

that of local students and collectively contribute $1.8 billion a year in fees...The market

for foreign students is considered to be worth £30 billion in fees alone. Further, this market

is expected to grow exponentially as incomes in developing countries increase. Within the

next 15 years, the demand for seats by foreign students will treble from 2 million to about

5-8 million in 2020, with most of the demand coming from Asia. Today, Britain ranks next

to the US in popularity". Gibbs (2001) covers Learning and Teaching report published by

higher education institutions in England. The study showed 48% of institutions stressed

on `development of flexible learning'; 47% targeted `improved access to learning

resources' and 81% wanted to make best use of ICT as pedagogical tool.

Australia: Australia's approach of emphasis on Vocational Education and Training (VET)

in higher education has led to an influx of foreign students. In order to expand their reach,

Australian universities have also tied up with countries in Asia and Gulf to establish their

campuses in these countries. Australian Vice- Chancellors Committee and Australian

National Training Authority (ANTA) have developed credit transfer arrangement in

different fields of study. VET sector had 1.9 million students in 2012. Commonwealth has

sanctioned $1.8 billion in 2013-14 for VET sector through National Agreement for Skills

and Workforce Development and supporting national partnerships (Australian

Government, 2013). The Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER) has laid the

emphasis for ICT development to enhance research along with the guidelines laid by the

National Assessment Program. Australian Curriculum integrates ICT to increase access,

knowledge building and communication. The emphasis is also on using ICT for problem

solving skills and collaborative learning with relevance to society in the local and global

context. The Melbourne Declaration on the Educational Goals for Young Australians

(MCEETYA, 2008) states that "in a digital age, and with rapid and continuing changes in

the ways that people share, use, develop and communicate with ICT, young people need to

be highly skilled in its use. To participate in a knowledge-based economy and to be

empowered within a technologically sophisticated society now and into the future, students

need the knowledge, skills and confidence to make ICT work for them at school, at home,

at work and in their communities".

China: In response to global trend, China has also come up with several Schools of

learning in higher education especially in the field of sciences to attract foreign students.

Various foreign universities have also set up their campuses in China. China has also

placed emphasis on distance and virtual learning through the use of ICT to bridge the gap

in education and access to information. Chinese Central Radio and TV University

(CCRTVU) in collaboration with the regional universities has come up with video lessons

for the students and also provides distance training for teachers in distance mode. Over

80,000 hours of TV courses have been prepared in consultation with subject specialists.

"China's satellite TV education programme planned to cover 70 per cent of the country

with educational TV stations or relay stations" (Sanyal, 2001). China was facing the

challenges to achieve the objective of 9 year compulsory education for the entire country

because of inaccessibility in certain regions and ethnic diversity (Chen Xiangming, 2000).

However ICT has enabled education to reach majority of its population. The "Twelfth

Five-year Plan" period (2010-2015), the Chinese government laid special emphasis on

incorporating ICT to build the next generation of information infrastructure.

Singapore: In Asia, Singapore has evolved as an educational hub for higher education

attracting students from over 60 nationalities. In order to create a knowledge based society,

Singapore places emphasis on international collaboration in education and industry

linkage. This has been possible with the presence of over 7000 multinational companies

which enables students to have industry experience and the existence of Private tertiary

educational organisations (PEO). For quality assurance Singapore has set up a `Care Trust'

awarding and Singapore Quality Clan (SQC) benchmarks. National University of

Singapore (NUS), Nanyang Technological University (NTU) and Singapore Management

University (SMU) have developed into centres of excellence. 14 of the world's leading

international universities including University of Chicago, Graduate School of Business

and INSEAD have set up centres of excellence in education and research in Singapore

(Kaul, 2006). Ministry of Education, Singapore has come up with its third Masterplan for

ICT in Education (2009-2014). The first Master plan was laid in 1997. The strategies of

the third Masterplan for ICT in Education are "to strengthen integration of ICT into

curriculum, pedagogy and assessment to enhance learning and develop competencies for

the 21st century; to provide differentiated professional development that is more practice-

based and models how ICT can be effectively used to help students learn better and to to

improve the sharing of best practices and successful innovations" (MOE Singapore, 2008).

Information Communication Technology (ICT) Interface

The above discussions show that ICT integration in Education is considered indispensable

in the approach to be taken by universities and government policies if they are to develop a

Knowledge based society. ICT developments will result in cost effective, efficient

transmission, retrieval and analysis of information. Quah (2002) claims that knowledge in

the global economy is used as both an input and an output; "Digital goods are bitstrings,

sequences of 0s and 1s, that have economic value. They are distinguished from other

goods by five characteristics: digital goods are nonrival, infinitely expansible, discrete,

aspatial, and recombinant". ICT offers the tools for active participation in the society

adding to Marshall McLuhan's global village. On a similar line, Castells (2001) discusses

how global civil society, government regulation, and economic development can be

influenced by information technologies. Harold Adams (1951) discusses that ICTs signify

an interface of mind and matter. Hence changes they create in communication

environments would lead to changes in "collective mentalité"; bringing about unavoidable

changes in society and culture.

Heeks (2002) lays emphasis on `iDevelopment not eDevelopment' using ICT and has

come up with various suggestions for policy building. (Gundrey, Murphy and Rao ,1993;

Rubinyi 1989 and Neil Butcher, 2012) talk about internet facilitating a wider interactive

communication and network which can impact individuals/organizations. World Summit

on the Information Society (WSIS, 2013) states the issue of exploiting the full potential

ICT to bring access and support sustainable development. The types of knowledge activity

taken up by universities have been described as one in which epistemic tradition in specific

disciplines continues and another which is interdisciplinary and more relevant to the

industry. Some scholars believe that with current ICTs, the later type of knowledge can be

applied where required. This has led to the emergence of entrepreneurial model of

academic research which can influence the economic growth of society (Etzkowitz, 2002

ibid; Etzkowitz et al.2012; EUA, 2013; EC,2013; Gibb, 2013 and Klofsten, 2013).

(Stoll, 1995; Talbott, 1995) along with other scholars have commented on ICT being over

hyped. Researches show that indiscriminate uses of ICT do not lead to knowledge

societies. (Melody, 2006, 1996c) commented that often time ICTs are based on corporate

needs; interventions in telecom policies is vital. Knowledge society development is unique

to each country where telecom facility system and ICT services according to Melody play

the crucial role. ICT enable educational change and improve the quality of education; they

prepare individual for the global economy and knowledge society (Kozma & Wagner,

2005; Sarkar, 2102 and UNESCO, 2012) thereby impact the education sector and economy

of a nation. Hence their linkage to national policies is necessary to address the constraints

faced in developing countries (Oliver et al, 2001; Sibiya, 2003; Perkman, et al. 2013 and

Klofsten, 2013). Kaino (2004) and Shan Fu (2013) highlight ineffective ICT policies

leading to underutilization.

Jaffer et al.(2007), Balasubramaniam et al.(2009), Ward, L. and Parr, J. M. ( 2010)

mention how ICT is also used for scholarly community engagement, and administration in

higher education. Universities are subject to the limitations of ICT one such challenge is

updating to the latest technological advances. Other challenges are in terms of pedagogical

thinking and organizational structures (Laurillard 2004; Tezci, E., 2011a). Advancements

in ICT call for trained professionals in both its technical and pedagogical units. ICT is

changing the way universities function and is crucial for "tackling the impacts of

massification, diversification, internationalisation and marketisation in higher education"

(International Association of Universities, 1998; Thune & Welle-Strand, 2005; Ward, L. &

Parr, J. M., 2010). It cannot be detached from educational, administrative and logistic

concerns; ICT needs to be implemented in institutional policy documents.

ICT for education and Institutional policies

Paisley (1985), mentions the first revolution in information technologies brought by films,

radio, television and satellite broadcasting; and the second revolution brought by

telecommunications and microcomputers. The third revolution brought by integration of

telecommunications and microelectronic technology in computing has enabled an

individual to interact in a network of worldwide electronic community (Papagiannis et al,

1987). The fourth revolution has the term `globalization' associated with it. Globalization

is ascribed to bring about interconnectedness through international exchange and

transnational interaction, dissolve economic borders and make the world a single global

society (McGrew, 1992; Faulconbridge and Beaverstock, 2009 and GWCRG, 2013). The

impact of ICT in higher education can be seen in terms of the extent to which technology

use enables individuals of these institutes to participate and be a part/ node in the

networked knowledge society. As (Haddon, 2000) puts it: "the extent to which ICTs

enhance our abilities to fulfill active roles in society, or being without them constitutes a

barrier to that end". Policies need to look at current patterns in information usage and ICTs

used in this process. Studies conducted have proved that just a mere increase in

infrastructure does not entail for successful deployment of ICT.

Kozma (2008) discusses how policy makers have recognized potential of ICTs to

restructure organizations, advance collaboration, increase democratic participation and

enhance the social integration of individuals with different abilities and groups of different

cultural background. Current trends are seen in ICT enhanced collaborative learning and

knowledge building (Shan Fu, 2013). Kennedy (2001) states that ICT shifts education

from just elite learning to mass learning as it provides greater accessibility. Inspite of its

potential, the high rate of failures result from poor ICT implementation (Haslinda et. al,

2013). Chatterje et al. (2002) emphasize that for ICT to be successful, it has to assimilate

in an organization wherein ICT diffuses across organizational work processes and becomes

a regular and essential part in the activities associated with those processes.

Roger's Diffusion of Innovation theory tries to explain assimilation of ICT in an

institution in three stages: initiation stage, assimilation stage and post-adoption stage

(Rogers, 2003). (Tornatzky & Fleischer, 1990) came up with TOE framework where

technology, organization and environment variables affect ICT assimilation in an

organization. Scott (2007) discusses the importance of technically capable ICT staff in an

organization who can adapt with the users' requirements and also the technological and

environmental needs. Organizational culture and change process according to Scott further

affect the assimilation process. Orlikowski (1991) came up with the Structuration Theory

of Technology Assimilation which gives interpretive flexibility. It looks at the relationship

between humans and technology and the context in which technology is developed and

used. Technology assimilation will depend on technology, human agent, and institutional

properties. Human agents create and use technology; and technology causes the human

agents to change their routine practices. Both act as mediators in the ongoing process

(Orlikowski, 1992). Web Assimilation model developed by Chatterjee et al (2002), top

management championship, strategic investment rationale, and extent of coordination

effect the assimilation of technologies. Clark et al (2008) discusses that since ICT

assimilation involves different actors, there is a need for shared value for the new

innovation.

ICT implementation requires infrastructure and human resources; technology has to be

user friendly; and an organization requires support staff to guide the users in skills to

implement Internet-related applications (Kevin, 2006; Matthews, 2007; Gao, J., & Hargis,

J., 2010). The emphasis laid here is on ICT human resource termed as `translators' (Paul

and Berranger, 2002). They are the link between the users and the technology; they

increase the organization's learning capability. (Kling, 1980; Markus and Robey, 1988;

Haslinda et. al, 2013) objected the overemphasis on technology and technocrats driven

changes in ICT adoption; they stressed the need to focus on the process driven changes

brought about by technology. And this process involves various social actors (Robey and

Bourdreau, 1999). Orlikowski (1992; 2000) mentions how such changes brought about by

ICT challenge existing cultures, structures and power relations in an organization.

Different contexts and different users assign varying meanings to ICT and its change

process (Orlikowski, 1992; Linderoth, 2007 and Haslinda et. al, 2013). Hence often time

there is a difference in interpretation of ICT from its assigners, developers and users

(Ciborra 1996; Hanseth & Braa 1998; Haslinda et. al, 2013 and Hanaa, 2014).

On the basis of above discussions the following questions arise in the context of ICT

implementation in higher education towards the larger goal of knowledge society:

1. Can higher education institutions become a more prominent and integrated part of

the knowledge society? How do the higher education policies affect the

communication process in a knowledge society?

2. What would be the demands from the knowledge economy for changes in the

organization of higher education and the way knowledge is managed within the an

institution? How can research and other knowledge be harnessed more efficiently

and how can ICT help in establishing a scientific knowledge base in these

activities?

3. Does exposure to profusion of Information using ICT change the way knowledge is

being created? Do virtual sharing systems enable a new or different kind of

knowledge system?

4. How are we to understand the knowledge mission of the university? If knowledge

is produced universally across the knowledge society, what characterizes the

knowledge activities of the university?

5. Networking in higher education - where does a network begin or end? Where do

networks become visible? Where or does the network branch out unofficially to

form `critical discussion within societies'?

6. Are the students in the Universities actually using ICT to fulfill the plans laid by

the education policies? What are the conditions that facilitate knowledge creation?

7. How can knowledge be effectively transferred using ICT? What are the inhibitions

towards knowledge acquired from internet sources? What about the issue of Digital

Divide within these educational networks?

8. What are the role of on line learning and distance education in the Universities?

9. How do individual higher education institutions participate in the discourse about

the knowledge society. What are the salient issues that the higher education in

different regional context (e.g. Northeast India) is likely to face in the near future?

Chapter 3

Methodology and Research Approaches for analyzing ICT integration

Case Study Research

The epistemology which guides this research is Interpretive Case Study which is suitable

for studying information systems in organizations. Interpretive studies help in analyzing

the phenomena by focusing on meanings constructed by people through the context of

information system and evidence sources viz. documents, archival records, interviews,

direct observation, participant observation, physical artifacts (Walsham, 1993; Yin, 2002).

(Jones and Nandhakumar (1993); Orlikowski and Baroudi (1991) and several other

researchers had applied interpretive case study analysis in studying the use of technology

in organizations. ICT can be considered socio-technical because it involves people and

their institutional structure. Interpretivism in this case is a suitable research approach to

study how social reality is constructed through assigning meanings to actions. Orlikowski

and Baroudi (1991) studied 155 articles on information systems and highlighted three main

research methodologies: positivist, interpretative and critical. The authors divide each of

the three research perspective into:

1. Ontology: Beliefs about Physical and Social Reality

2. Epistemology and methodology: Beliefs about Knowledge

3. How the researcher relates to the subject under study: Beliefs about

Knowledge Beliefs about the Relationship between Knowledge and the

Empirical World

Theoretical approaches: the social and technical

Technological determinism and Social determinism are theories seen as two extreme

forms. In the former view, technological systems are regarded primarily as technical

wherein problems regarding technology are technically complex and can be solved by

using sophisticated technical solutions. Technological determinism is often guided by

autonomy of technology and importance of technical constraints (Constant, 1989;

Hickman, 1990; Ropohl, 1983; Wilkinson, 1964; Winner, 1977). Technology becomes a

distinct system with its relationship to society expressed in terms of impacts (Chandler,

1995). Hales and Snyder (1981) come up with the terms "input, processes, output, and

feedback" indicating a linear direction that technology takes. Technological determinism

has been criticized for its limited perspective in ascribing an autonomous character to

technology. In the latter view, technological systems are believed to be social systems that

are technically implemented; "They serve as the agent for significant social interactions,

which implies their connection to human communication through the medium of

language" (Hirschheim, Klein et al. 1995). Social constructivists highlight "relevant social

groups" and "interpretive flexibility"; technology represents a social construction and

`social shaping' of the actors involved (Brey, 1997). This approach has also been criticized

for its shallow emphasis on political and social interests.

Socio-technical approaches: The socio-technical perspective is a balance between the

above mentioned two approaches. It sees technology reliant on both social factors and the

technical qualities of technology itself (Markus and Robey, 1998). Markus and Robey

mention an interactive approach where use of technology depends both on human choice

and technological characteristics. This perspective of understanding technology represents

both social and technical aspect comprising of heterogonous networks of human and non-

human actors (Avgerou, 2002; Law, 1992).

Both the technical and social perspective are influential. The diffusion theory (which can

be considered as a socio-technical approach) and the actor-network theory (which can be

the social construction of technology) will be followed in this research. Hence, the

research approach is interpretive and case study is the appropriate method for this research.

Diffusion theory, Actor- Network theory and Grounded Theory as a theoretical

framework for analysis

Diffusion theory: Everett Rogers' work `Diffusion of Innovations' (Rogers, 1995) states

that diffusion is a process through which an individual passes while adapting to a new

technology. It has five stages viz. knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation, and

confirmation. This theory works methodologically as analysis of the five stages explains

the adoption or non-adoption of an innovation. Various studies and extension of Diffusion

theory have come up with factors such as innovation characteristics, organizational

characteristics, characteristics of the environment and characteristics of the communication

channel and networks which could affect the adoption process.

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Michel Callon (1986) summarized the process of "translation" as four moments or phases

viz. Problematization, Interessement, Enrolment and Mobilization. To be able to follow

ANT methodology the research gathers the following information (Callon, 1986):

1. Identify and describe the purpose, needs, and benefits of ICT

(problematization).

2. Develop a list of key actants (actor-networks or stakeholders) and

define their interests, needs, and requirements.

3. Map relationships of actants and identify centrality of relationships,

strong and weak ties, structural holes, and sources of resistance.

4. Engagement of the key actants and translation of their interests into

visions, objectives, plans and roles (interessment).

5. Map Enrolment, mobilization, empowerment, and coordination of

actants as translators, i.e., creating chains of translators, and dealing

with resistance.

6. Devise strategies for expansion and continuance of the network, e.g., for

creating centers of translation for expanding and perpetuating the

network and effecting the desired change.

Radder (1992) cites the limitations of ANT for focusing only on case studies and empirical

observation; values and norms may be overlooked. Walsham (1997) further states that

following ANT may lack political analysis and result in poor explanations. To remedy this,

further exploration into the concept of translation with the help of Grounded Theory is

required. Translation calls for an interpretive approach to study the socio-technical nature

of ideas and behaviour.

Grounded Theory: Grounded Theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) data analysis involves

searching out the concepts looking for codes, concepts and categories. Grounded Theory is

"an inductive, theory discovery methodology that allows the researcher to develop a

theoretical account of the general features of a topic while simultaneously grounding the

account in empirical observations or data" (Martin and Turner; 1986). The three

characteristics of grounded theory--inductive, contextual, and processual; it attempts to

come up with a a context-based, process-oriented description of the phenomenon

(Orlikowski and Baroudi, 1991). Grounded theory leads from codes to concepts to

categories to theory and helps in investigating the connections at each stage. Based on the

codes, concepts and categories gathered at different stages of the research, questionnaires

were formulated and data gathered was interpreted during analysis.

The theoretical framework of DOI and ANT act as sensitizing device (Glasser & Strauss,

1967; Glasser,1978) in the first stage of analyzing which will take the form of `open

coding' (Strauss, 1987). Diffusion theory helps in locating the links between cause and

effect; ANT approach helps the research in locating how actor-networks (people and

things) are created, strengthened and weakened. ANT offers some key terms that emerge

from empirical investigations, but the theory is designed to dissolve once the descriptive

phase of field work is over. Therefore techniques from Grounded Theory are adapted in

order to conduct data analysis (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). ANT and Grounded Theory are

complementary theories, firstly because they both place empirically grounded data

collection at the heart of research and secondly because they are designed to sensitize the

researcher to different aspects of field work process. Grounded Theory does not offer the

researcher a philosophical basis upon which to conceptualize empirical work but it does

offer clear guidelines for data analysis; ANT offers no such guidelines but is well suited to

the task of theoretically sensitizing the researcher.

Selection of Institutes for the Case Study

India's higher education system is the third largest in the world, after China and the United

States. Central Government is responsible for major policy relating to higher education in

the country. It provides grants to University Grants Commission (UGC) and establishes

central universities in the country. There are 39 Central Universities under the purview of

the Ministry of Human Resource Development, created under the Act of Parliament. Out

of them 15 new Central Universities have been established w.e.f 15.1.2009. The ordinance

has since been replaced by an Act of parliament, namely, Central Universities Act, 2009.

While 38 of these are getting maintenance and development grants by the Central

Government through the UGC; IGNOU, New Delhi is funded directly by the Ministry of

HRD.

List of 15 new Central Universities:

University of Bihar

University of Gujarat

Central University of Haryana

University of Himachal Pradesh

University of Jammu & Kashmir

University of Jharkhand

University of Karnataka

University of Kerala

University of Orissa

10.

University of Punjab

11.

University of Rajasthan

12.

University of Tamil Nadu

13.

Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya, Bilaspur

14.

Dr Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar

15.

Hemwati Nandan Bahuguna Garhwal University, Srinagar

Affiliating Universities

Rajiv Gandhi University , Itanagar

Assam University, Silchar

The Indira Gandhi National Tribal University, Amarkantak

Central Agricultural University, Imphal

Manipur University, Imphal

North Eastern Hill University, Shillong

Mizoram University, Aizawal

Nagaland University, Nagaland

Pondicherry University, Pondicherry

10.

Sikkim University, Gangtok

11.

Tripura University, Agartala

12.

Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh

13.

University of Allahabad, Allahabad

14.

Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow

15.

Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi

16.

Delhi University, Delhi

Non-affiliating unitary Central Universities:

1. University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, became central university 1974.

2. Maulana Azad National Urdu University, Hyderabad, became central university

1998.

3. The English and Foreign Languages University, Hyderabad, became central

university 2007.

4. Tezpur University, Tezpur, became central university 1994.

5. Mahatma Gandhi Antarrashtriya Hindi Vishwavidyalay, Wardha, became

central university 1997.

6. Vishwa Bharati University, Shanti Niketan, became a central university in

1951.

7. Jamia Mallia Islamia University, New Delhi, became central university 1988.

8. Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, became a central university in 1969.

Out of the 39 Central universities, for the purpose of selection of cases, the 15 new

universities and 16 affiliating universities were eliminated. That left 8 Non-affiliating

unitary Central Universities which can be categorized as under:

1. Younger Central Universities: Tezpur University (1994), Mahatma Gandhi

Antarrashtriya Hindi Vishwavidyalay (1997), Maulana Azad National Urdu

University (1998), The English and Foreign Languages University (2007).

2. Older Central Universities : Vishwa Bharati University (1951), Jawaharlal Nehru

University (1969), University of Hyderabad (1974), Jamia Mallia Islamia

University (1988).

Taking the above classifications into consideration, Tezpur University and University of

Hyderabad are chosen for the purpose of case study. They are chosen on the following

basis:

1. To see the level of ICT for education (ICT4E) translation and interpretation made

by a young university like Tezpur University (TZU) and the ICT4E translation by

an older university like University of Hyderabad (UOH)

2. To look at the regional issues and challenges faced by TZU which is situated in a

remote location in Northeast of India and to assess the issues and challenges faced

by UOH which is located in a metropolis Hyderabad known for its IT and IT

Enabled Services

Research Design

Based on the Problem discussed in the Introductory chapter, the research attempts to

analyze issues of Knowledge, Governance and Access using ICT; the application of

communication technologies in Higher Education Sector that helps in fulfilling the goal of

Knowledge Society; the Communication process and strategies in Higher Education

networking; existing `digital divide' and the implications.

The Research objectives are:

1. An assessment of existing application of ICT in higher education institutions in

order to give an indication of the existing gap, if any.

2. Appropriateness of ICT to achieve the functions and goals highlighted in National

Knowledge Commission (NKC) in particular to increase the efficiency of

education delivery and adequate response to the new learning paradigm.

3. Adequacy of the ICT for research and development in the light of globalization.

Steps to be taken to ensure that Universities can perform the roles expected of them

in ICT innovations. Necessity for institutional ICT policy, plans and strategies for

implementation.

4. Recommendations for successful use of ICT4E management involving human

resources, processes and institutional culture from the experiences gathered from

the case studies.

Case Study Protocol

Table 1 - Case Study Protocol: Levels of decision and choices

Level of Decision

Choice

Epistemological and Ontological

Assumptions

Interpretive

Research Strategy

Descriptive-exploratory case study

Research Techniques

Observations, semi-structured interviews,

interpretation of documents, Questionnaires

Organisation

University of Hyderbad (UOH)

Tezpur University (TZU)

Sub-units of Analysis

National and Institutional Education Policy

documents about ICT

Administrative Information System

Institutional (Users) perspective

Timeline (field work)

August 2010 March 2012

Subject

Translation of ICT4E in TZU & UOH

Theoretical framework

Diffusion Theory

Actor Network Theory

Grounded Theory

Table 2 - Unit of analysis and data sources

Unit of analysis

Description

Data Source

Objectives of University

efforts

Motivation for ICT

integration

Institutional policy

documents

Capital Infrastructure

Status of Servers,

bandwidth, ICT systems,

networks as well as working

conditions for students and

staff

Interviews of

Administrative and middle

management

Audits and Observation

Usage (and reasons

therefore)

Who uses facilities, for what

purposes, where and when?

Motivators and hindrances?

Survey of the

University Staff and Students

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Title

Translation of ICT for Education towards a Knowledge Society

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Communications

Author

Dr. Machunwangliu Kamei (Author)

Year

2015

Pages

250

Catalog Number

V318406

ISBN (PDF)

9783960675396

ISBN (Book)

9783960670391

File size

4696 KB

Language

English

Tags

Information Communication Technologies Knowledge Education initiative National education policy ICT4E University of Hyderabad Tezpur University Case study Indian Education Policy Education in India

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Dr. Machunwangliu Kamei (Author)

, 2015, Translation of ICT for Education towards a Knowledge Society, Hamburg, Bedey Media GmbH, https://www.anchor-publishing.com/document/318406

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