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5.13 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
139
5.14 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
141
5.15 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
141
5.16 CONCLUSION
142
BIBLIOGRAPHY
143
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Education is the systematic and deliberate influence of the mature on the
immature through instruction, discipline and harmonious development of five powers i.e.
physical, intellectual, spiritual, social, and aesthetic, according to the need of society
(Redden 2005). Education is a process of human enlightment and empowerment for the
achievement of a higher quality of life ( Manihar Singh AK,1994). For the same reason,
as the priorities and thrusts of a nation undergo a certain amount of change from time to
time, so must educational priorities and objectives, to enable education to retain its
currency and relevance. One of the most important resources of country is its human
resource. Education aims at the development of human resources to the fullest possible
extent. Further Education is a lifelong process which develops the broad based
knowledge, the main aim of education is above all is to shape a nation's future and this
depends on education system of the nation. Accordingly, the goals and priorities of the
nation must necessarily be reflected in the objectives of the teaching profession and of the
teacher, since these are intrinsically and casually linked to the education system (Chris
Berry 2008).
1.2
INDIAN EDUCATION SYSTEM
The education system in India is considered to be one of the largest and most
ancient in the world. Presently the education system is divided into different levels or
stages. The stages are classified as pre-primary level, elementary education, secondary
education, undergraduate level and postgraduate level. Broadly, the primary
education caters up to the age of fourteen years (referred to as Elementary Education), the
Secondary education spreads over the ages of 15 and 16, and then to 17 and 18 in the
senior secondary grades. India's higher education system is the third largest in the world,
after China and the United States caters to graduate and postgraduate educations referred
to as tertiary education (wwwindianetzone.com, 2009).
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1.3
SECONDARY EDUCATION IN INDIA
The secondary schools that prepare pupils for secondary schools and universities
are the mediating link between the elementary schools and the colleges and if this is the
position occupied by the secondary schools, it is then an undeniable fact that the type of
education given at the secondary level plays a significant role in the field of education.
Secondary education is mainly aimed at preparing the young students between the age
group of 14-16 for the world of work and entry into higher education. In India, the
secondary education starts from the class 9-10 and leads a student to the higher secondary
classes of 11-12 (http://india.gov.in/citizen/secondary_education.php, 2011).
There are several institutions that provide secondary education in India and these
institutions include both the government and private schools. Generally these schools
follow either the state or the national curriculum for providing secondary education to the
students. Apart from the central government, the state boards of education of the Indian
states are also playing an important role in spreading secondary education in their
respective states, with effective cooperation of teachers. (Panda Upendra Nath 2004).
1.4 ROLE OF TEACHERS IN THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
Education is a complicated process and the teacher, is one of the most important
agencies to take part in educating the young. Obviously, the teacher in the present times
as the key agency of education has the influence and responsibility to mould the next
generation. Thus the importance of the teacher in national life cannot be over
emphasized. It is he, who influences the immature minds of the youth. He treats and tries
to mould living stuff into various forms. The future of the nation is fashioned by him
through the process of education. A nation trying to march ahead on the road to progress
can hardly leave the education of her sons and daughters in the hands of incompetent
teachers. The world of tomorrow will be born from the schools of today says M.L. Jacks.
In this way, the teacher, indeed, is the true builder of the nation.
A sound educational system is considered as the backbone of a developing
country like India and teacher is the pivot around which the entire educational system
revolves. The success of any educational system depends on the quality and capability of
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the teacher who is indispensible in the system and thus the teacher forms on important
force in the development of a society (Faranak Joolideh, K.Yeshodhara, 2009).
It is the teaching profession, which helps an individual in his growth fully, in his
body, mind, and spirit, intellectual, emotional and with moral values and artistic
sensitivity (Dhar P.L. 2003). Therefore, teaching has been accepted as the noblest
profession. It has been well said that teaching means causing to learn. Nothing has been
given until it has been taken, nothing has been taught until it has been learnt. Teaching is
more than the efficient delivery of thoroughly prepared lectures, and a clear realization of
these simple facts will save many beginners in the art of teaching from much
disappointment.
Teacher is the most vital single factor of influence in the system of education. It
is the teacher, who matters most, as far as the quality of education is concerned. It is the
teacher, who refines instincts, make pupil socially acceptable, inculcates values,
provokes and develops capabilities of men, to their fullest and best, so that they may be
of best use of themselves, to the society, to the nation and to mankind as a whole. A
teacher affects eternity and he can never tell where his influence stops. The teachers
play an important role in shaping and moulding the habits, tastes, manners and above
all the character of students
(Sushil Kumar Singh 2011).
In other words, the teacher occupies a unique place and he/she is the heart and
soul of any educational institution. Without proper and well qualified teacher, even the
best building, richest curricula up to date library and the most expensive equipment will
be of no use, while a good teacher will be able to make education effective even with
poor equipment. Hence the role of a teacher has never been limited to the acquisition of
knowledge and the development of skills and also important to influence in a changing
world.
The university education commission (1948-49) states that "the success of
educational process depends so much on the character and ability of the teacher that in
any plan of university reform the main concern must be for securing an adequate staff
with qualifications necessary for the discharge of its many sided duties". The Mudaliar
report has also observed by stating that "we are convinced that the most important factor
in the contemplated educational reconstruction is the teacher-his personal qualities, his
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educational qualifications, his professional training and the place that he occupies in the
school as well as in the community".
The importance of the teacher has been well realized in India and throughout the
world. A teacher is the keystone of the edifice of education. He has been regarded as
symbol of independence, freedom and progress. He is next only to the saint. Who moulds
the character and behaviuor of those who come under his influence? Hence the
responsibility of the teacher is very great and considerable. Any national system of
education depends on its success in the quality of the teacher (Ojo.B.J, 2008).The present
situation of classroom education has made the role of teacher increasingly challenging
and complex. Therefore teachers are supposed to maintain the quality of teaching that
improves the classroom learning which in turn helps to maintain the standard of
education (Palakshaiah 1996).
Teaching profession is a complex one and includes ability to deal with students in
school work, interest in collecting and learning up to date information, ability to design
and adopt new techniques in teaching, thirst for knowledge, ability to point out individual
differences among students to teach accordingly, ability to develop cordial relationship
with his colleagues in order to uphold the group morale and to achieve the goals of
education teachers are themselves expected to be agents of change. "No system of
education can rise higher than its teachers." (Kochhar, SK 2005). Therefore "The way to
child-centered education can only be through teacher-centered school." Hence the teacher
has to have self autonomy and have to engage in his work effectively to achieve the
expectations of the society in a changing world (Rao DB 2003).
If the destiny of a nation is being shaped in her classrooms, then the real destiny is
the teacher said Dr.Kothari and teachers are the corner-stone, the pivot and the
`backbone' of the educational system. They are the social engineers who socialize and
humanize young minds. They are the transmitters of intellectual technical skills from
generation to generation
.
Their personality causes a strong `impotent' in the minds of
students. It is rightly stated that "As is the teacher, so is the student'. The ancient India
considered teachers as `Gurus' and teaching profession as `Noble-profession' for they
were the `shapers' and `molders' of human personality and character. Then it has been
aptly remarked, "If you educate a boy, you educate one individual. If you educate a girl,
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you educate the whole family and if you educate a teacher, you educate the whole
community."
Right from the earliest period to the philosophers and administration have
eulogized the teacher's work in most generous term. Teacher is called as a "Saviour of
mankind". As a result the strength of an educational system must largely depend upon the
quality of its teacher which in turn results from the autonomy the teacher enjoys and
work is engaging to the teachers.
1.5 CONCEPT OF WORK ENGAGEMENT
Khan (1990) was the first scholar given the concept of engagement, related this
concept to the notion of psychological presence. According to his definition, engagement
refers to the state in which individuals express themselves physically, cognitively,
emotionally in their role.
Work engagement is conceptualized as the positive antipode of workplace
burnout (Schaufeli and Bakker, 2004), a syndrome characterized by mental or physical
exhaustion, cynicism and reduced professional efficacy (Maslach, Jackson and Leiter,
1996). In the literature, there are two approaches to work engagement. The first approach
is advocated by Maslach and Leiter (1997). Maslach and Leiter (1997) argue that
engagement is characterized by energy, involvement and efficacy the direct opposites
of the three dimensions of burnout.
The second approach to work engagement has been put forward by Schaufeli,
Salanova, Gonzalez-Roma and Bakker (2002). Schaufeli and his co-researchers (2002)
argue that burnout and work engagement are two distinct albeit negatively correlated
states of mind as opposed to being two opposite ends of a single continuum, and as a
result they define work engagement in its own right as a `positive, fulfilling work related
state of mind that is characterized by vigor, dedication and absorption' (Schaufeli et. al.,
2002, p. 74). Vigor reflects the readiness to devote effort in one's work, an exhibition of
high levels of energy while working and the tendency to remain resolute in the face of
task difficulty or failure. Dedication refers to a strong identification with one's work and
encompasses feelings of enthusiasm, inspiration, pride, and challenge. The third
dimension of engagement is absorption. Absorption is characterized by being completely
6
immersed in one's work, in a manner that time appears to pass rapidly and one finds it
difficult to disengage oneself from work.
They differentiated three facets of engagement: vigor in which individuals
experience and feel enthusiastically involved in challenging and significant work, as well
as absorption, in which individuals is highly concentrated and happily engrossed in their
role. So that s/he feels time passes quickly and it is difficult to detach from work
(Schaufeli et. al., 2002).
Work engagement and burnout are the opposite poles of a continuum of work
related well-being, with burnout representing the negative pole and engagement the
positive pole. One who suffer from burnout feel mentally fatigue, always find something
doubt about their future and have a sense of limited efficacy in professional settings. In
contrast, engaged employee feel mentally strong to deal with the desirable tasks, always
actively involved in effective activities and exhibit high efficacy in their profession
(Maslach and Leiter 1997). Further these researchers contend that when individuals
experience the feeling of burnout `energy turns into exhaustion, involvement turns into
cynicism and efficacy turns into ineffectiveness'. However it is to be noted that it is not
acceptable that both concepts are perfectly negatively correlated. That is, when an
employee is not burned-out, this doesn't necessarily mean that he or she is engaged in his
or her work. Reversibly, when an employee is low on engagement, this does not mean
that he or she is burned-out. For this reason Schaufeli and his co-researchers (2002) argue
that burnout and work engagement are two distinct concepts that should be assessed
independently (Schaufeli and Bakker, 2001).
The three facets of engagement according to Schaufeli, Salanova, Gonzaacutelez-
Romaacute, and Bakker (2002) are vigor in which individuals experience a sense of
energy and resilience, dedication, in which individuals feel enthusiastically involved in
challenging and significant work, as well as absorption, in which individuals is highly
concentrated and happily engrossed in their role. So that s/he feels time passes quickly
and it is difficult to detach from work.
Accordingly, vigor and dedication are considered direct opposites of exhaustion
and cynicism, respectively. The continuum that is spanned by vigor and exhaustion has
been labeled energy or activation, whereas the continuum that is spanned by dedication
7
and cynicism has been labeled identification (Schaufeli and Bakker, 2001). Hence, work
engagement is characterized by a high level of energy and strong identification with one's
work. Burnout, on the other hand, is characterized by the opposite: a low level of energy
combined with poor identification with one's work.
Several studies have empirically validated that Work engagement is the complete
involvement of an individual in their work. Engaged individuals are able to deal with the
challenging tasks which fulfill their job demands. They are highly energetic, mentally and
physically very strong that means quickly recover from the difficult conditions, enjoy
their roles at every moment, find difficult to detach from their work, ready to work for
extra hours even after the scheduled time. Always think positively to achieve the goals
for the wellbeing of organization, highly competent, motive themselves and others to
promote the engagement at work. They are proud of their jobs, fully concentrate and take
the initiative to change their working environments to encourage the individual to happily
involve in one's work. Always seek for the opportunities to exhibit high performance
which is suitable to their talents and interest, more zeal in their work, highly optimistic,
good co-ordination with the colleagues and the higher authority, ready to accept the
feedback with the open mindedness and the responsibilities to enhance the quality
performance.
Work engagement is defined as a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind
characterized by vigor, dedication and absorption (Schaufeli, Salanova, Gonzales-Roma,
and Baker, 2002). The definition of work engagement advocated by Schaufeli and his
colleagues (2002) separates work engagement from the related concept of burnout and as
a result establishes it as an independent construct which is important in its own right.
Work engagement encompasses both the affective and cognitive aspects of work
engagement. This implies that in addition to cognitions, engagement also involves an
active utilization of emotions and feelings (Salanova and Schaufeli, 2008). This
definition splits engagement into three dimensions: (1) vigor; (2) dedication; and (3)
absorption, which can be analyzed separately. This permits for a more accurate detection
of where strengths and deficiencies exist in terms of each facet of work engagement
(Freeney and Tiernan, 2006). The driving force behind the importance of work
engagement is that it has positive consequences for the organization. For example,
8
empirical research on work engagement reports that high levels of engagement lead to
enhanced organizational commitment, increased job satisfaction, lower absenteeism and
turnover rates, improved health and well being, more extra role behaviours, higher
performance and a greater exhibition of personal initiative, proactive behaviour and
learning motivation (Schaufeli and Salanova, 2007). Thus investing in conditions, which
foster work engagement among employees, is vital for the growth and profitability of
organizations.
Structured qualitative interviews with a heterogeneous group of Dutch employees
who scored high on the UWES showed that engaged employees are active agents, who
take initiative at work and generate their own positive feedback (Schaufeli, Taris, Le
Blanc, Peeters, Bakker and De Jonge, 2001). Furthermore, their values seem to match
well with those of the organization they work for and they also seem to be engaged in
other activities outside their work. Although the interviewed engaged workers indicated
that they sometimes feel tired, unlike burned-out employees who experience fatigue as
being exclusively negative, they described their tiredness as a rather pleasant state
because it was associated with positive accomplishments. Some engaged employees who
were interviewed indicated that they had been burned-out before, which points to certain
resilience as well as to the use of effective coping strategies. Finally, engaged employees
are not workaholic because they enjoy other things outside work and because, unlike
workaholics, they do not work hard because of a strong and irresistible inner drive, but
because for them working is fun.
Further Engaged individuals are energetic about their work, feel connected to
their work, and are better able to deal with job demands (Schaufeli and Salanova, 2007b).
Vigor is characterized by energy, mental resilience, the willingness to invest one's effort,
and persistence (Schaufeli, Salanova et al., 2002). Dedication is characterized by "a sense
of significance, enthusiasm, inspiration, pride, and challenge" (Schaufeli, Salanova et al.,
2002). Absorption is characterized by being engrossed in one's work, to the extent to
which time passes quickly and it is difficult to detach oneself from work (Schaufeli,
Salanova et al., 2002).
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1.6 CHARACTERISTICS OF WORK ENGAGEMENT
Many studies have shown the characteristics of engagement. It involves
investigating the hands, heads and heart in active, full work performance (Simmons.B.L.,
2010) and exhibit considerable creativity, solves the problems effectively, fulfill the
prescribed roles more effectively (Hakanen.,at.el., 2006). Engaged workers are more
creative, more productive and more willing to go the extra mile (Bakker. A.B.,
Demerouti. E., 2008). The individuals who are engaged are energetic, dedicated and
absorbed at work, primarily because they enjoy their role, which ultimately tends to
exhibit the continuous professional development (Bakker, Schaufeli, Leiter, and Taris,
2008). Engaged employees enact more discretionary behaviours to improve the
organization as well as fulfill their role more effectively (Bakker, Demerouti, and
Verbeke, 2004). Further the individual exhibit innovative behaviour and conflict with co-
workers and satisfaction with co-worker relations (Janssen Onne 2003).
1.7 RESOURCES OF ENGAGEMENT
Job resources include social support, feedback, and opportunities for autonomy,
variety, and growth. Such resources are good for the worker they satisfy basic human
needs and good for the workplace, because when job resources are rich, work gets done
more quickly and with better results. The process, moreover, is cyclical. Working better
is more rewarding for the worker, which in turn increases her engagement and
effectiveness.
Interestingly, engagement and high-quality performance is greatest when the
demands of the job are highest. This principle applies even to what we think of as low-
level jobs, such as those at a fast-food restaurant (Bakker., 2011)
Many researchers have identified that job resources such as social support from co-
workers and one's superior, performance feedback, coaching, job control, task variety,
opportunities for learning and development, training facilities promote work engagement.
These resources useful for the achievement of work goals and also stimulate for learning,
personal growth and development. For instance, Schaufeli and Bakker (2004)
demonstrated constructive feedback, social support, and coaching from supervisors-all
exemplars of job resources were positively associated with three dimensions of
10
engagement: vigor, dedication and absorption. Similarly, in another study, supervisor
support, appreciation, information, job control, innovation, and climate-six potential
resources were also related to work engagement (Bakker, Hakanen, Demerouti, and
Xanthopoulou, 2007).
Employees' own personal resources such as self-esteem and optimism also
contribute to work engagement. Not only do workers with abundant personal resources
approach their jobs with more enthusiasm and joy; they also tend to be in better health,
allowing them to focus and work hard. They tend as well to create more of all these
goodies for themselves through "job-crafting," seeking ways to make their
responsibilities "fit" their talents and interests and to increase challenge. Again, the
process is an upward spiral. Job crafters gain admiration from other workers, thus
transferring their attitudes to them. Those more productive attitudes increase the other
workers' engagement and with it, their own productivity and personal reward.
Work engagement differs from person to person, which helps account for the fact that
some are leaders and others are followers. For each person, engagement also ebbs and
flows from day to day, even hour to hour (Bakker).
Personal resources, such as optimism, self-efficacy and resilience are functional in
controlling the environment and exerting impact on it in a successful way. Engaged
employees have several personal characteristics that differentiate them from less engaged
employees. Examples are extraversion, conscientiousness and emotional stability.
Psychological capital also seems to be related to work engagement. Xanthopoulou,
Bakker, Demerouti, and Schaufeli (2007) studied Dutch technicians' work engagement in
relation to three personal resources (self-efficacy, organizational-based self-esteem, and
optimism) and reported that these resources were related to work engagement.
1.8 IMPORTANCE OF WORK ENGAGEMENT
Engaged workers are those who approach their work with energy, dedication, and
focus. They are more open to new information, more productive, and more willing to go
the extra mile. Moreover, engaged workers take the initiative to change their work
environments in order to stay engaged.
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An engaged employee is the one who is fully involved in and enthusiastic about
their work and thus will act in a way that furthers their organization's interests. Engaged
employees feel a strong emotional bond to the organization that employs them. This is
associated with people demonstrating willingness to recommend the organization to
others and commit time and effort to help the organization succeed. This leads that the
engaged people are motivated by intrinsic factors (e.g. personal growth, working to a
common purpose, being part of a larger process) rather than simply focusing on extrinsic
factors. In addition to this they possess high-involvement, more positive attitudes,
including trust, organizational commitment and intrinsic enjoyment of the work (Eileen
Appelbaum and her colleagues 2000).
Further it develops the cordial working relationship with peers, supervisors, and
subordinates to fulfill the expectations and commitments of the organization. This makes
the greatest impact on loyalty and customer's service. Also work engagement inspires the
ethos and values of the organization. Engagements tend to elicit positive emotions,
which can enhance creativity, flexibility and optimism. As a consequence, these
individual become more inclined to embrace opportunities (Cropanzano and Wright,
2001). Work engagement tends to enhance more enduring forms of health, both physical
and psychological, which in turn can facilitate effort and dedication. Also engaged
employees are more likely to uncover and accumulate resources, such as support from
colleagues and information about the organization, which enable these individuals to
accommodate demands and complications (Salanova, Bakker, and Llorens, 2006).
Engaged employees often inspire their colleagues, which can improve coordination of
activities across the team (Bakker, Schaufeli, Leiter, and Tairs, 2008).
1.9 THEORIES OF WORK ENGAGEMENT
1.9.1 PSYCHOLOGICAL PRESENCE
Research has suggested that the level of work engagement in general is affected
by personal characteristics, the work place (Brown, 1992; khan, 1990; in Kirkpatrick,
2007) and the characteristics of the work, including job status and job demands (Mauno
et al., 2007). Teachers' engagement might be affected by their personal characteristics
12
like identity, self-esteem, and the sense of efficacy. Therefore, teachers with
clear identity, higher self-esteem, and higher sense of efficacy tend to be more engaged in
their job.
Khan (1990, 1992) argued that engagement culminates from a state called
psychological presence-a state in which the authentic, true facets of the self can be fully
expressed. In this state, individuals do not need to curb their beliefs, values, thoughts,
feelings, inclinations, and relationships. All of these facets of themselves are manifested
in the behaviour at work.
Khan (1990) delineates three factors that promote this presence or engagement.
First, when employees experience a sense of meaning in their work, this presence or
engagement is more likely to ensue. That is, in some contexts, individuals feel their work
relates to some broader, enduring, important, and desirable objectives or value. They feel
their work aligns with the aspirations they value. As a consequence, they become more
inclined to dedicate their efforts to this endeavor, rather than withhold their exertion,
which manifests as presence or engagement. Second, when individual feel that such
dedication and application to their role will not culminate in undesirable or negative
consequences, called psychological safety, engagement is also more likely. Third,
individuals can maintain this dedication and application to their work only if they can
access the necessary resources, called psychological availability. That is, they need, for
example, to be able to muster the necessary energy or exertion.
Rich, Lepine, and Crawford (2010) also confirmed this theory. In particular, in
their study, participants completed measures that represent the extent to which they feel
the work aligns to their values, called value congruence, and their organization supports
employees. Furthermore, a measure of core self evaluations, comprising self-esteem, self-
efficacy, emotional stability, and locus of control, was also administered. In addition,
they completed the various measures of engagement. Value congruence, perceived
organizational support, and core self evaluations were indeed associated with
engagement.
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1.9.2 SOCIAL EXCHANGE
According to social exchange theory, as individuals interact over time, they
experience the need to reciprocate the support and assistance of the other person, called
the norm of reciprocity ( Balu, 1983). For example, if one person helps a friend, this
friend will experience an obligation to reciprocate at some time in the future, offering a
form of assistance that is equal in magnitude. If this norm of reciprocity is fulfilled, a
trusting and loyal relationship evolves (Cropanzano and Mitchell, 2005).
Engagement in employees might represent a form of obligation to the
organization. That is, if organizations offer support to their employees, these individuals
feel obliged to become cognitively, emotionally, and physically engaged in their work
role. They feel they should direct constructive behaviors, such as positive attitudes,
towards the organization. Consistent with this perspective, when organizations do offer
support and resources, employees do indeed report elevated levels of engagement (Sacks,
2006).
1.9.3 THE JOB DEMANDS RESOURCES MODEL
The job demands-resources model assumes that job demands, such as elevated
levels of pressure, undue expectations, and conflicting requirements, tend to provoke
burnout. In this context, job demands represent any facets of a role that demands
sustained effort to accommodate or withstand difficulties. The effort that needs to be
applied to accommodate these demands depletes energy, culminating in exhaustion
(Bakker and Demerouti, 2007; Schaufeli and Bakker, 2004). In contrast, job resources,
including autonomy support, and feedback, can all foster engagement as well as mitigate
the adverse consequences of undue job demands.
1.10 HOW TO COPE WITH THE WORK ENGAGEMENT
The success or failure of any organization is depends on their leader. The
successful leaders help the subordinates to find the solution to their problems. Leaders are
involved with bringing together resources, developing the strategies, organizing and
controlling activities in order to achieve objectives. At the same time they should decide
what is to be done and motivate people to do it. Motivating the employees is not an easy
14
task because each individual respond in different ways to their jobs and to organizational
practices. Motivation is human psychological characteristic that affects a person's degree
of commitment. It is the set of forces that move a person towards a goal. Energizing each
individual towards goal is a challenge to the leader.
Carnell, Ben-Hador, Wadlam, and Rupp (2009) demonstrated that leaders who
strive to improve relationships amongst employees enhance at least one facet of
engagement: vigor. Furthermore, vigor was related to performance. Several mechanisms
explain the relationship between the development of trusting relationships at work and
the engagement of employees with their tasks. First, individuals might receive more
positive feedback about their work. Colleagues seem interested in their role. Hence
employees feel their tasks are important, which can facilitate engagement (Thomas,
Sansone, and Pasupathi, 2006).
1.11 WORK ENGAGEMENT OF TEACHERS
Research in work engagement has been done in various professions including
teaching. Many have come to suggest that work engagement or sometimes also referred
to as job engagement has been identified as having correlation with both positive and
negative aspects of work achievement (Kirkpatrick, 2007; Mauno, 2007; Milner and
Hoy, 2002). Engagement is a key issue in education these days as we work to develop a
school environment that promotes learning, critical thinking and team work among
teachers, parents and students. Researchers have proved that Work engagement of
teachers also has effective performance in their activities.
Work engagement might be influenced by factors like job resources (Bakker et
al., 2007) personal factors and other factors like student behaviour, collegial and
administrative supports and parental demands and government policy. In terms of
teaching profession, issues in work engagement have also received important responses
nowadays due to the worldwide high attrition and turnover among teachers. In the USA,
for example, Ingersoll (2001) has reported that up to 50% of teachers leave the teaching
profession in the first 10 years of their career. Feng (2005) emphasizes that among those
who stayed, only a quarter retired while half of them left for other careers. Teacher
turnover and attrition also happen other western countries with an estimated 25-40% of
15
beginning teachers leaving their job (Ewing and Smith, 2003). This is also due to the
beliefs that teachers' work engagement is a factor of students achievement.
Several studies indicated that work engagement has positive consequences at
individual and the organization level for the teachers also. For instance, the teachers who
were the most engaged attracted more favorable ratings of performance (Hakanen,
Bakker, and Schaufeli, 2006). These Teachers exhibited considerable creativity, solved
problems effectively, undertook many discretionary tasks to enhance the school, reported
elevated levels of commitment, and fulfilled their prescribed roles. Bakker and Bal
(2006) found that daily levels of work engagement were predictive of classroom
performance among 54 starting teachers in their weekly diary study. Work engagement
among Finnish educational staff was positively associated with self-rated health and
working ability (Hakanen, 2002).
Intensive attempts have been made to study Work engagement of teachers with
respect to vigor dedication and absorption. Bala Adekola (2010) studied about work
engagement among secondary school English teachers in Nigeria by using UWES scale
developed by Schaufeli and Bakker (2004) and found that teachers work engagement is
generally high for vigor, dedication and absorption. Further Bakker Arnold et.al. (2007)
studied about job resources act as buffers and diminish the negative relationship between
pupil misbehavior and work engagement among Finnish teachers working in elementary,
secondary, and vocational schools and found that the different combinations of job
resources explained significant amounts of the variance in vigor, dedication and
absorption over and above the main effects. The teachers who were the most engaged
attracted more favorable ratings of performance (Hakanen, Bakker, and
Schaufeli,2006).These teachers exhibited considerable creativity, solved problems
effectively, undertook many discretionary tasks to enhance the school, reported elevated
levels of commitment, and fulfilled their prescribed roles. These competencies are
possible only if teachers enjoy adequate autonomy in their profession.
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1.12 CONCEPT OF TEACHER AUTONOMY
Autonomy is a concept found in moral, political, and bioethical philosophy.
Within these contexts, it refers to the capacity of a rational individual to make an
informed, un-coerced decision. In moral and political philosophy, autonomy is often used
as the basis for determining moral responsibility for one's actions. One of the best known
philosophical theories of autonomy was developed by Kant. In medicine, respect for the
autonomy of patients is an important goal, though it can conflict with a competing ethical
principle, namely beneficence. However, beneficence is what is claimed to have
motivated every parent from before the dawn of civilization. Autonomy is also used to
refer to the self-government of the people.
Little (1995) defines teacher autonomy as the "teacher's capacity to engage in
self-directed teaching." Aoki (2000) offers an explicit definition of teacher autonomy,
suggesting that this involves "the capacity, freedom, and/or responsibility to make
choices concerning one's own teaching" According to Richard Smith (2000), teacher
autonomy refers to "the ability to develop appropriate skills, knowledge and attitudes for
oneself as a teacher, in cooperation with others." Benson (2000) argues that teacher
autonomy can be seen as "a right to freedom from control (or an ability to exercise this
right) as well as actual freedom from control".
Teacher autonomy means capacity for self-directed professional action, self-
directed professional development and freedom from control by others over professional
action. In the United States teacher autonomy has been declining for at least a decade.
First, uniform staff development programmes based on research on effective teaching
have become widespread. Second, classroom observations have become an integral part
of imposed teacher evaluations (Anderson 1987).
Further teacher autonomy relates to teacher control over curriculum, pedagogy,
assessment, student discipline, classroom environment, and professional development.
Research identified four aspects of teacher autonomy: a capacity for self-directed
teaching, freedom from control over teaching, a capacity for self-directed teacher-
learning and a responsibility to take actions and bear consequences (Breen and Mann
1997; Thavenis 1999; Little 2000; Lamb 2000; Aoki 2000; Mcgrath2000; Smith 2000).
17
Benson (2001) argues that teacher autonomy can be seen as "a right to freedom
from control (or an ability to exercise this right) as well as actual freedom from control".
Barfield et al,(2002) defines teacher autonomy is a process of inquiry into how teachers
can promote learner autonomy through understanding and dealing with a number of
external constraints and transforming them into opportunities for change. This requires
that teachers develop institutional knowledge and flexibility within their individual
teaching situation through critical reflective inquiry, empowerment, and dialogue.
1.13 RESOURCES OF TEACHER AUTONOMY
A teacher's autonomy in instruction and assessment is guided by his/her
professionalism, which implies not only specialized knowledge and skills but also a
commitment to quality and a high level of personal responsibility for achieving the
educational mandate to "enable all learners." In this regard motivation plays a vital role.
In a myriad of studies, researchers have examined teachers' intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation. Intrinsic factors for teachers include a) desire to help students achieve b)
desire to make a difference in society and c) sense of accomplishment when students
learn. Extrinsic factors for teachers include a) pay b) nonmonetary fringe benefits and c)
recognition of performance (Ashbaugh, 1982; Dejesus, 1991; Dinham and Scott, 1996;
Farrar, 1981; Firestone and Pennell,1993; Picard,1986; Porter, 1993; Swanson and
Koonce,1986). Over all, "intrinsic rewards are much more powerful for motivating
teachers than are extrinsic rewards, such as merit pay" (National Institute of Education,
1981).
1.14 IMPORTANCE OF TEACHER AUTONOMY
The individual teacher needs the freedom to recognize children as individuals and
to use this recognition to help each child reach his or her maximum potential. At the
same time, the individual teacher's classroom is the site of some of the greatest
inequities in education. The classroom can be a wonderfully interactive place, full of
engaged learners, or it can be a dreadful place where children are bored, confused, and
labeled as failures. Empowerment or marginalization either can result from teacher
autonomy.
18
David Little (1995) reveals that the dependence of learner autonomy on teacher
autonomy and how autonomy is to be fostered, focusing first on learning strategies and
learner training and then on the pedagogical dialogue and the role of the teacher.
Because learning arises from interaction and interaction is characterized by
interdependence, the development of autonomy in learners presupposes the development
of autonomy in teachers. Further (Douglas Fleming,1998) states that all the instructors
wanted autonomy over the selection of materials, classroom activities, curriculum
guidelines, linguistic elements, teaching materials, needs assessment, assessment of
learner proficiency, professional development, relations with other staff, and settlement
theme content (Douglas Fleming,1998).
Clayton Singer LaCoe (2006) explored the types of teacher autonomy by
decomposing the autonomy into six distinct sub-components: autonomy over curriculum,
pedagogy, assessment, professional development, student discipline, and classroom
environment and how the school climate affects teacher autonomy. Teachers generally
desire more autonomy than they perceive they already possess and also suggest that the
school leaders know about the complex nature of teacher autonomy and how leaders can
leverage the power of teacher autonomy to make schools better places for children to
learn and grow. Further Reinders, H., and Balcikanli, C. (2011) investigated the role of
teacher to foster the learner autonomy. Increased appreciation of the interrelationship
between learner autonomy and teacher autonomy, both in the classroom and in the self-
access centre. One obvious impact on learners' autonomy is their teachers' understanding
of what autonomy means, and their ability to implement it in the classroom. Teacher
autonomy enhances independent learning and develops the skills which support for
autonomous learning.
One important area of teacher learning to consider is teacher autonomy and
agency in curriculum enactment. Paris (1993) defines teacher agency in curriculum
matters as involving "the creation or critique of curriculum, an awareness of alternatives
to established curriculum practices, the autonomy to make informed curriculum choices,
an investment of in self, and ongoing interaction with others".
Older professional development studies and research reports on teachers
Curriculum use in mathematics in the US-research that occurred prior to the release of
19
standard-based mathematics curriculum-frequently had teacher autonomy as a goal. For
instance, Cobb and Wood (1998) expressed intellectual autonomy as a goal for their
teachers and were "gratified to find that the teachers are increasingly relying on their own
judgments when selecting from the available materials". It would seem that they are
becoming curriculum constructors to meet their students' needs. Pearson et.al, (2005)
investigated that, as curriculum autonomy increased on-the-job stress decreased and
general teacher autonomy increased so did empowerment and professionalism.
1.15 HINDRANCES TO TEACHER AUTONOMY
The issues surrounding educational reform are very complex. Specifically,
Shulman (1983) cited five impediments to reform: conflicting policy mandates, limited
resources, limited teacher expertise, working conditions and top down delivery. The first
impediment is described as conflicting policy mandates. For example the federal No
Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act requires 100% of students to meet proficiency levels as
set forth by the individual states by 2014. The teachers have to work in top-down
management system. This system often strips teachers of great deal of control due to
policies set forth by others. Although there is a great distance between policy and the
classroom, the policies still must be followed. The mandated research based policies
failed to acknowledge the human side of teaching. If teachers believe that the reform
efforts intended to improve student achievement actually deceased opportunities for
spontaneity and discovery, disrupted student-teacher relationship, and decreased
opportunities for students to learn together, then those reform policies were doomed to
fail.
Further teachers are scarce resources in the classroom. With many students
competing for their attention, teachers end up spreading themselves far thinner than their
students deserve. Also Shulman found that teachers must navigate the waters of
curricular competition by teaching several subjects to mastery and devoting instructional
time one subject at the expense of another. Finally, teachers must function within a larger
bureaucratic system that places demands on their time and energy in addition to their
teaching duties. All these make the individual teacher stifling and controlling. Thus
teachers need the freedom to be creative. They need flexibility to modify and expand on
20
the textbooks and other curricular material, the school makes them use and know how to
improve the deficiencies of bad curricula.
1.16 HOW TO FOSTER THE TEACHER AUTONOMY
The teacher autonomy can be promoted in a given teaching context by
considering the practical aspects. Teachers should be allowed to teach with their own
teaching from different aspects to discover some clues to make their teaching more
effective and to develop their autonomy. Gebhard and Oprandy (2005) states that the
concept of professional development may come from teachers breaking some teaching
rules to see their own teaching differently. Daoud's (2002) study indicates that action
research contributes to teacher autonomous learning and teacher autonomy assists in
promoting learner autonomy. The goal of action research is to find resolutions of
problems posed and identified (Gebhard and Oprandy 2005). In other words, action
research allows teachers to develop their teaching through the process of discovering,
posing, and solving teaching problems, to expand reflective skills, and to create a forum
to discuss teaching issues can encourage them to become aware of their own teaching. In
this way, action research includes the three components necessary for developing teacher
autonomy, which are critical reflective inquiry, empowerment and dialogue.
Self- observation is another way to develop the teacher autonomy. The primary
purpose of Self- observation is for language teachers to construct and reconstruct their
own knowledge about teaching. Through a process of videotaping, describing, analyzing
and interpreting the result (Gebhard and Oprandy 2005).Further teacher autonomy is a
socially constructed process and it can be strengthened by "collaborative support and
networking both within the institution and beyond'(Barfield et al.,2002,p.5)
Peer observation is another technique. Peer observation is conducted with peer
teaching. One formal approach is that two teachers organize a lesson, and one teaches
while the other observes the class; and after the lesson, both teachers describe what
happened in the classroom and detail their experience of the lesson, and discuss how the
lesson could be modified next time on the basis of the descriptions; and for the next class,
the role is reversed (Harmer, 2001). Peer observation enables two teachers to explore
their own teaching and collaboration helps the participants develop as teachers.
21
In addition to action research, self-observation, and peer observation, there are
several other useful approaches for professional teacher development. For instance,
reading professional literature or journals. enables teachers to gain awareness of what is
currently happening in this field all over the world and to construct new knowledge
about teaching and conducting classroom research. Attending conferences is also an
effective way to develop as teachers. Furthermore, the application of the Internet provides
new spaces for developing teacher autonomy (e.g. Schwienhorst, 1999; Harmer, 2001).
Compiling a teaching portfolio is another approach to professional teacher development.
Richards and Schmidt (2002) mentioned that keeping a portfolio shows "evidence of
mastery of knowledge" and compiling a portfolio involves in deciding what to include in
the portfolio according to their personal goals.
Teaching is an inherently complex and difficult job. Undoubtedly teacher
autonomy is handling the challenging situation in the class. In this regard teacher has to
engage in their work with effective autonomy.
1.17 ROLE OF TEACHER AUTONOMY WITH RESPECT TO WORK
ENGAGEMENT
The advent of democracy in India resulted in new hopes, aspirations and demands
of education. To achieve the expectations of new demands the education system has to
provide wide access to improve quality, evolve effective organizational and
administrative structures and process and acquire certain specializations and autonomy.
In this view the government have given autonomy to secondary school teachers, such as
adoption of new methods of teaching, selection of learning activities, techniques to
maintain discipline, utilization of resources, skills etc. In support of all these providing
orientation programs, workshops and seminars by experts are organized further is
autonomy given to the secondary school teachers utilized effectively? The question goes
unanswered to a large extent. Several reasons that contribute include lack of interest. This
leads to lethargy and lack of interest in their profession. Further over burden of work,
insufficient co-ordination from the peers in the institution, conflicting policy mandates,
limited expertise, lack of teacher commitment, salary, working conditions and personal
problems.
22
To overcome from these, sufficient autonomy and efficient use of autonomy for
achievement of the challenging targets is necessary. This will further enable the
autonomous teacher seek opportunities to develop further in their profession. In other
words it enhances the engagement of teachers in their profession. Many researches
support that more the autonomy more the work engagement. For instance, Barfield et
al.,(2001) states teacher autonomy involved a `readiness to engage in lifelong learning to
the best of an individual's capacity', and identified one quality of an autonomous teacher
was the desire for teacher led enhancements to their career. Furthermore, they stressed
the importance of the collaborative nature of teacher development. Assor A, et.al, (2002)
emphasis that the active and empathic nature of teacher's role supports the student's
autonomy. Marylène Gagné (2003) point out that autonomy orientation was strongly
related to engagement in prosocial behavior. Reeve Johnmarshall et.al.,(2004) state that
teachers active involvement and use of more autonomy support during a task, promote
their students to be more engaged.
1.18 NEED FOR THE STUDY
Teacher has to work for the realization of the aims of education. To achieve the
aims teacher needs to take various responsibilities, such as planning for teaching,
accountability for students performance, classroom management, discipline, developing
the appropriate teaching skills, knowledge and attitude oneself as a teacher in co-
operation with others. In order to achieve all these freedom, energy, dedication and
professional development is essential for teachers. If teachers' lack freedom, it leads to
low performance in their work. The aim of educational institutions is to enhance the
performance of its teacher especially in the context of fast changing life styles of
individuals and family context. In this aspect teacher should exhibit considerable
creativity, Problem solving ability and many other discretionary tasks vigorously to
enhance schools reported elevated levels of commitment and fulfillment of their
prescribed roles. In the present Context School teachers are forced every day to rules,
norms framed by the government or the school managements, due to which teachers have
no freedom to enhance their abilities and overcome their dissatisfaction. But these
23
competencies can be achieved by the teachers only if teachers are dedicated and absorbed
in enjoying adequate autonomy in teaching profession.
In light of the above discussion investigator felt the need to examine how work
engagement and teacher autonomy are related among secondary school teachers.
1.19 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Autonomy as a concept is however not new to India. Right from the ancient
Gurukula days, learning has been fostered in an environment that allowed the learner to
seek and grow alongside his guru. The guru was in a symbiotic relationship with the
learner, the latter being an active participant in the learning process (Sgharfe, 2002). In
the world of Indian classical music and dance, a lot of autonomy always existed.
Musicians were rarely given `lessons': they lived with their guru, helped him in his daily
chores, observed, imbibed. The village schools in olden India allowed the teacher a lot of
autonomy in teaching, evaluation (Dharampal ,2000). Therefore as a concept it is not
alien; it needs to be re-injected into the system.
Autonomy in the Indian scenario since the 1950s, Indian curricula has embraced
the behaviorist paradigm (Sarangapani, 2000). This spills onto teaching and can be
considered an age-old technique that has withstood time in continuing to exist. By its
very nature, behaviorism is in conflict with the new pedagogies that hail a learner centric
approach, the unforeseen in learning outcomes and liberty of student and teacher.
The Eleventh 5 Year Plan (2007-12), outlines three types of autonomy:
Institutional autonomy, governance autonomy and financial autonomy and refers to it as
"the sine qua non of excellence.". The autonomy refers to a set of skills and attitudes
concerning the teacher and which has an impact on his pedagogical stance.
The eleventh Plan 2007-1 2 draws up a detailed agenda for education in India.
While it does not explicitly define teacher autonomy, it reveals it in the smaller details. It
talks about "Improved Quality to be defined in operational terms through clearly
identified outcome indicators viz. teacher competencies, classroom processes, teaching
learning materials etc. It talks about quality improvement through complete revamping of
teaching/learning methods by shifting from traditional repetitive experiments to open
ended design-work for encouraging invention and innovation, improving self-directed
24
learning and modern aids, quality of pre-service and in-service teacher education,
inquisitive reasoning, rationality. It talks about self-learning material, innovation,
creativity and excellence. One could argue that all of these can be best achieved through
teacher autonomy (Vasumathi Badrinathan 2011)
Teacher autonomy is essential for ensuring a learning environment that addresses
children's diverse needs. As much as the learner requires space, freedom, flexibility, and
respect, the teacher also requires the same. Currently, the system of administrative
hierarchies and control, examinations, and centralized planning for curriculum reform, all
constrain the autonomy of the teacher. Even when there is curricular freedom, teachers
do not feel confident that they can exercise it without being taken to task by the
administration for doing things differently. It is therefore essential to enable and support
them in exercising choice. As much as the classroom needs to nurture a democratic,
flexible and accepting culture, so also the school institution and the bureaucratic structure
need to do the same. Not only should the teacher receive orders and information, but
equally the voice of the teacher should be heard by those higher up, who often take
decisions that affect the immediate classroom life and culture in the school.
Relationships between teachers and their heads and principals must be informed by
equality and mutual respect, and decision making must be on the basis of dialogue and
discussion. The annual, monthly and weekly calendars of activities need to provide time
for such staff interactions for reviewing and planning. There is a need to encourage an
atmosphere that facilitates collaborative efforts among teachers. There must also be
mechanisms for conflict resolution (Sarangapani, P. 2000).
Thus in India there are hardly if not any scholars and studies that have examined
the consequences of teacher autonomy on work engagement of teachers. Therefore the
present study intends to investigate the benefits of teacher autonomy on work
engagement of secondary school teachers. Specifically, the study seeks to describe the
characteristics of the secondary school teachers of Bangalore in terms of gender, age,
experience and the type of management they work for, assess the behavior with regard
work engagement as a result of teacher autonomy. Thus the problem of the present study
is stated as "WORK ENGAGEMENT AND TEACHER AUTONOMY AMONG
SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS".
25
1.20 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
It was intended through the present investigation to study work engagement in
relation to teacher autonomy of secondary school teachers. The dependent variable in the
study was work engagement and independent variable was teacher autonomy of
secondary school teachers respectively.
The tools used in the study were Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES)
developed by Schaufeli and Bakker (2004) to measure Work Engagement among
secondary school teachers and Teaching Autonomy scale developed by Pearson, L. C.,
and Hall, B. C., (1993) to measure teacher autonomy.
The tools of the present study was administered to a sample size comprising of 40
and 32 secondary school teachers for the purpose of try out for adapting and
standarzation of the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) developed by Schaufel
and Bakker (2004) and Teaching Autonomy scale developed by Pearson, L. C., and
Hall, B. C., used in the present study. The sample for the final study consisted of the 450
secondary school teachers, which included 225 males and 225 females. The data was
collected by the researcher personally visiting the schools and administering the tools.
Considering the above the study was undertaken with the following objectives.
1.21 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The present study will be undertaken with the following major objectives.
1. To find out the differences in the level of work engagement and teacher
autonomy.
2. To find out the level of teaching autonomy among secondary school teachers.
3. To find out the relationship between work engagement and teacher autonomy of
secondary school teachers.
4. To find out if there are difference across demographics and work engagement
with respect to gender, age, experience and type of management
5. To find out if there are any difference across demographics and teacher autonomy
with respect to gender, age, experience and type of management
26
1.22 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
· The present study has been delimited to the following, in view of time, practical
feasibility of the administration of the Questionnaire and resource available with
the investigator.
· The present study is confined to the selected secondary schools in Bangalore
District only
· The sample of the study was limited to Bangalore city only.
· The study was conducted among secondary school teachers only.
· Only a few variables are considered for the study.
1.23 RESUME OF SUCCEEDING CHAPTERS
The present chapter deals with the introduction of the study. It includes the need
for the study, statement of the problem and objectives of the study. The second chapter is
review of related literature. The third chapter describes the methodology of the study.
The fourth chapter is on analysis and interpretation of data. The fifth chapter deals with
the summary, recommendations, limitations, and conclusion for future research. The
bibliography and appendices have been included at the end.
27
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1
INTRODUCTION
Research takes advantages of the knowledge which has accumulated in the past as
a result of constant human endeavor. It can never be undertaken in isolation of the work
that has already been done on the problems which are directly or indirectly related to a
study proposed by the researcher. The literature review is the process of reading,
analyzing, evaluating, and summarizing scholarly materials about a specific topic (Koul
Lokesh, 2005).
According to Hart (1998): A literature review can be defined as the selection of
available documents on the topic, which contain information, ideas, data and evidence
written from a particular standpoint to fulfill certain aims or express certain views on the
nature of the topic and how it is to be investigated, and the effective evaluation of these
documents in relation to the research being proposed.
Hence it allows the researcher to acquaint himself with current knowledge in the
field or area in which he is going to conduct his research. It serves as a guide to the
researcher with respect to some specific purposes. Such as to define the limits of his
problem, add the knowledge in a meaningful way from the positive findings, to
understand the research methodology and recommendations of previous researches for
further research (Ridley Diana 2008)
The related literature can be finding through research journals, books,
dissertations, theses abstracts, bibliographies, web site and other sources of information.
Hence a literature review is a body of text that aims to review the critical points of
current knowledge including substantive findings as well as theoretical and
methodological contributions to a particular topic (Nordquist Richard 2011)
28
In the present study review of literature is categorized into four sections,
a. Studies related to general work engagement.
b. Studies related to work engagement of teachers.
c. Studies related to teacher autonomy.
d. Studies related to work engagement and autonomy
2.2 STUDIES RELATED TO GENERAL WORK ENGAGEMENT
Simmons.B.L (2010) conducted a study on employee engagement and
performance to find the credible evidence. The engagement involves investigating the
hands, head, and heart in active, full work performance. The new measure of job
engagement has 18 questions, 6 for each of the sub-dimensions of engagement (physical,
emotional, and cognitive engagement). The findings of the job engagement are value
congruence, perceived organizational support, and core self-evaluation. Such that higher
levels of these were associated with higher levels of job engagement.
Dollard, M. F. and Bakker, A. B. (2010), conducted a study on psychosocial
safety climate (psc) as a precursor to conducive work environments, psychological health
problems, and employee engagement. The PSC refers to policies, practices, and
procedures for the protection of worker psychosocial health and safety. The PSC tested at
the school level by meso-mediational models using two-level (longitudinal) hierarchical
linear modeling in a sample of Australian education workers (N = 209288). Data were
repeated measures separated by 12 months, within 18 schools. PSC predicted change in
employee engagement, through its relationship with skill discretion. The results show that
the PSC construct is a key upstream component of work stress theory and a logical
intervention site for work stress intervention.
Hultell, D. and Gustavsson, J. P. (2010) explored how Burnout and work
engagement are psychological states, new instrument called the Scale of Work
Engagement and Burnout (SWEBO) was used to measure the burnout and work
engagement was developed during 2007. The sample of the study was 2,266 newly
graduated Swedish nurses and teachers. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used for
the analysis. Finding of the study is that the SWEBO presents a psychometrically sound
alternative for measuring burnout and work engagement across occupation and age.
29
Xanthopoulou, Bakker
et al (2009) conducted a study titled Work engagement and
financial returns: A diary study on the role of job and personal resources. The study
investigated how daily fluctuations in job resources (autonomy, coaching, and team
climate) were related to employees' levels of personal resources (self-efficacy, self-
esteem, and optimism), work engagement, and financial returns. Forty-two employees
working in three branches of a fast-food company completed a questionnaire and a diary
booklet over 5 consecutive workdays. The results of the study revealed that day-level job
resources had an effect on work engagement through day-level personal resources, after
controlling for general levels of personal resources and engagement. Further Day-level
coaching had a direct positive relationship with day-level work engagement, which, in-
turn, predicted daily financial returns.
Kuhnel Jana et al
(2009) conducted a study on work engagement by examining
how a short respite and general job involvement contribute to work engagement. The data
gathered through questionnaire from 156 nurses before and after a short respite. Results
indicated an increase of work engagement after the respite. Structural equation modeling
showed that nurses who experienced psychological detachment from work during the
respite showed a higher increase of work engagement. Moreover, nurses who indicated
higher job involvement also showed a higher increase of work engagement.
Contradictory to this direct positive effect job involvement had on change in work
engagement, job involvement exerted a negative indirect effect on change in work
engagement by impaired psychological detachment during the respite. Hence, job
involvement acted as a double-edged sword for the increase of work engagement.
Sonnentag Sabine and Niessen Cornelia (2008) conducted a study titled
"staying vigorous until work is over: The role of trait vigor, day-specific work
experiences and recovery". The study examined trait vigor (i.e. a person's general
level of vigor), day-specific workload (time pressure, work hours), and recovery
resulting from unwinding during leisure time as predictors of day-specific vigor as
experienced at the end of the working day. Seventy-five individuals from service
and public administration organizations completed one general survey and daily
surveys two times per day for five working days. Trait vigour, demographic
variables and control variables (e.g. job control, home workload) were assessed in
30
the general survey. Day-specific level of vigor, day-specific workload, and day-
specific recovery were measured in the daily survey. Analyses following a
hierarchical linear modeling approach showed that trait vigor, day-specific workload
and recovery accumulated during the preceding evenings predicted an individual's
level of vigour at the end of the working day, after controlling for a range of other
variables (gender, age, job control, and home workload). Further trait vigor and
accumulated recovery experiences interacted significantly to predict vigor at the end
of the working day, indicating that individuals high on trait vigor benefit most from
recovery experienced over the course of several days
Jonathon R. B. et al (2008) conducted a study on the relative roles of
engagement and embeddedness in predicting job performance and intention to leave.
The primary research question of the study was to find out whether work
engagement and job embeddedness were empirically distinct constructs. The sample
of the study carried out by US employees from a wide variety of industries and
occupations (n=587), their supervisors, and their closest co-worker. The study
found via confirmatory factor analysis that engagement and embeddedness were
unique constructs.
Bakker A.B, Demerouti E (2008) conducted a study towards a model of work
engagement. The main purpose of the study was to know the new concept of work
engagement with respect to vigor, dedication and absorption. The study revealed that job
and personal resources are the main predictors of engagement. These resources gain their
salience in the context of high job demands. Engaged workers were more creative more
productive and more willing to go the extra mile.
CONCLUSION
The studies conducted on work engagement has been carried out on samples of
employees working in industry, public administration organization, nurses, reveals that
organizational support, psychologically good climate, personal resources , job resources,
short interval of rest, enables higher levels of work engagement.
31
2.3 STUDIES RELATED TO WORK ENGAGEMENT OF TEACHERS
Bakker and Bal (2010) conducted a study on weekly work engagement and
performance among starting teachers. The main purpose of the study is to know how the
weekly job resources are related to work engagement. The study among 54 Dutch
teachers tested a model of weekly work engagement. The teachers were asked to fill in a
weekly questionnaire every Friday during 5 consecutive weeks. The findings of the study
are week levels of autonomy, exchange with the supervisor, and opportunities for
development (but not social support) were positively related to Weekly engagement,
which, in turn, was positively related to weekly job performance.
Philipp, A., and Schüpbauch, H. (2010)
investigated that the longitudinal effects
of emotional labour on emotional exhaustion and dedication of teachers. Two-wave
longitudinal study over the period of 1 year on sample of 102 teachers was investigated to
know the effect of emotional labor on emotional exhaustion and dedication. The result of
the study is that teachers who were able to influence their emotions to feel the emotion
appropriate in a situation (so called deep acting) felt significantly less emotionally
exhausted after 1 year that is characterized as health-beneficial. Once teachers felt
emotionally exhausted, they used more surface acting. More dedicated teachers, on the
contrary, did neither engage more in deep acting nor in surface acting at Time 2. This
indicates that the teachers who are dedicated to teaching seem less likely to act. To
prevent emotional exhaustion of teachers, the development of interventions to promote
health-beneficial emotional labor is necessary. This can be achieved by fostering deep
acting, which reduces emotional exhaustion over longer periods of time.
Simbula, S., Guglielmi, D., Schaufeli, W. B., and Depolo M. (2010) is a study on
"An Italian validation of the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale: characterization of
profiles in a sample of school teachers investigated the factor structure and the stability of
the original 17-item and a recently developed short 9-item versions of the Utrecht Work
Engagement Scale (UWES) in a sample of Italian school teachers; and to classify
teachers on the basis of their work engagement levels, using cluster-analyses, and to
determine whether engaged teachers differ from their less engaged colleagues in terms of
job- and personal resources, positive organizational attitudes and behaviour and
perceived health. Confirmatory factor analysis supported the hypothesized three-factor
32
structure vigor, dedication, absorption of both UWES scales. Results of the cluster
analysis revealed that teachers who feel more engaged experience more job- and personal
resources, more positive organizational attitudes and behaviors and better health
compared to those less engaged. In sum, our findings showed that the short version of the
UWES can be used in Italy among teachers for assessing and monitoring levels of work
engagement.
Chughtai, A.A. and Buckley, F. (2009) undertook a study to highlight the role of
organizational identification and work engagement in explaining the linkage between
trust in the principal and the three outcome variables, self reported in-role job
performance, organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) and learning goal orientation.
Survey method was adopted to collect the data from 130 high school teachers in Pakistan.
. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were used to test the research hypotheses. The
research of the study revealed that organizational identification and work engagement
fully mediated the relationship between trust in the principal and in-role job performance;
whereas, they partially mediated the effects of trust in the principal on OCB and learning
goal orientation.
Klusmann U., Kunter M., at.al. (2008)
investigated the association between
school-specific demands and resources, on the one hand, and engagement and exhaustion,
on the other. The data obtained at individual-level from 1,939 secondary teachers as well
as school-level data from their principals and students, by 198 German schools. The data
was subjected to multilevel analysis. The study predicted that by providing particular
attention to individual differences between teachers along with the support of principals
in educational matters makes the individual teachers to exhibit the higher levels of
engagement and disciplinary problems in the classroom predicts higher emotional
exhaustion. Further the results suggest that paying particular attention to individual
differences between teachers might predispose them to develop either more engagement
or emotional exhaustion.
L. Lorente, M.Salanova, I. Martinez and W.B. Schaufeli, (2008) conducted a
study on extension of the Job Demands-Resources model (Schaufeli and Bakker, 2004) in
the prediction of burnout (exhaustion, cynicism, depersonalization) and work engagement
(vigor and dedication) among teachers. The sample used for the study was 274 teachers
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- , 2016, Work Engagement and Teacher Autonomy among Secondary School Teachers, Hamburg, Diplomica Publishing GmbH, https://www.anchor-publishing.com/document/335405
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