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4
List of Tables and Appendices
Abbas Zakria Qasmi
The representation of Islam in Western electronic media
(A critical discourse analysis of an interview with Reza Aslan
on a Fox news webcast called Spirited Debate)
Appendix A: The Interview
103
Anna Babitskaya
An integral discourse of justice as a discursive space in modern Russia.
Definitions of 'future' and its connection with 'historical past'
Appendix A: Excerpt: The Court of Time. October 1917.
The Bolsheviks destroyed or saved Russia?
136
Mercy Okon Ikpi
The press, insecurity and national development in Nigeria
(A content analysis of The Guardian and The Sun newspaper)
Table 1: News
reports
on
insecurity
148
Table 2:
National
development
148
Anna Babitskaya
The representation of Belorussian cinema in On the screens magazine
Table 1: Special editions and total
number
texts
164
Table 2: The number of texts fully dedicated to the following subjects
164
Table 3: Number of texts about the news of celebrations of important date
165
Table 4: Usage of words premier, holiday, anniversary
165
Table 5: Correlation of foreign and Belorussian movies which are
considered in festival and important events context
166
5
Table 6:
Announced
movies
166
Table 7:
Announced
Belorussian
movies
166
Table 8:
Informative
journalistic
genres
167
Table 9:
Types
of
articles
169
Table 10: Application of framing theory
170
Abbas Zakria Qasmi
The New York Times' depiction of Madrasas in Pakistan
Table 1: Total number of times the word `Madrasa' is used
187
Table 2: No. of times the publications mention `Madrasas in Pakistan'
188
Table 3: Two categories, namely opinions and news reports
189
Table 4: Inclination of the terms used in the publications
190
Table 5: Inclination of the publications: annual breakdown
190
7
About the Editors
Dr. Martin Abdel Matin Gansinger (born 1979 in Austria) studied Communication
Science and Political Science at the University of Vienna and passed both with
distinction. His Master's thesis discusses recursive patterns of cultural, social, and
political resistance in various forms of Black American musical expression and the
potential of HipHop as an alternative communication-structure for the compensation of
dysfunctional representation through mainstream-media and has been published in
2008. He furthermore analyzed the conditions of communication and interaction in
regard to the practice of collective improvisation as a musical method and its
correspondence to the concept of the Ideal Speech Situation as introduced by Habermas
as well as its efficiency in the context of Intercultural Communication to attain a
Doctor's degree in Communication Science (published 2010).
Next to being an editor and journalist for jazzzeit magazine and Vienna-based radio
station orange 94.0 from 2005-2009 he has been working as a PR-coordinator for the
internationally awarded, independent label JazzWerkstatt Records. Martin Abdel Matin
Gansinger conducted several long-term field studies abroad and received financial
funding through the University of Vienna's research scholarship. He spent a year in
Ghana in coordination with the Vienna Institue for Development and Cooperation and
Prof. John Collins from the University of Ghana/Accra, researching Intercultural
Communication processes in the context of transfusional West African music styles
including an extended stay at the local compound of the Jamaica-based Bobo Shanti-
Mansion, one of the strictest subdivisions of the Rastafari faith, and allowance to their
communal Nyahbinghi ceremonies. Further field research aiming at extemporaneous
communication techniques and its use in traditional knowledge- and recognition-
systems has been done in Fez/Morocco and the convent of the Naqshbandi Sufi order in
Lefke/Cyprus where he is working and residing since 2009. He is currently holding the
position of an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Communication at Girne American
8
University, teaching Undergraduate-, Master-, and Ph.D.-classes as well as appointed
Head of Department of Radio, TV Cinema.
Dr. Ayman Kole (born 1980, Sydney, Australia) completed an experience course at the
prestigious Australian, Film, TV and Radio school whilst still a student studying in
High School in 1996. He studied intensively at the University of Sydney, completing a
BA in Arts with triple majors: English, Performance Studies and Studies in Religion in
2002. He also finished a scriptwriting course at the same University. He worked as a
High School English Teacher before completing his MA in English at the University of
Sydney in 2006. During his studies in the Masters Degree program, he wrote the short
story `The Mirror' which was selected as the Phoenix Journal finalist and published by
Sydney University Press. He later was successfully accepted as a PhD student at
Charles Sturt University to commence work on his thesis encompassing Literature,
History and Creative Writing. His objective was to explore the historical, cultural and
social landscape of Eastern Europe and the Middle East with a focus on the 17
th
century
and he spent time in Turkey and Cyprus conducting thorough historical research. In his
work, Ayman investigated how people can be manipulated and just how quickly firmly
held beliefs can be either modified or replaced in light of effectively staged
performances. Furthermore, his thesis aimed to alert inquisitive minds to the cons and
trickery of harmful or pretentious movements and this message can be applied to the
realm of religion and politics today. One of Ayman's strengths in writing is his richly
detailed research and his ability to create a fascinating narrative not from only one
cultural perspective, but from many competing social groups of the selected era. Indeed,
his profound insightfulness of the 17
th
century, illustrating the differences and
commonalities between the major religions of the area are just as relevant today as they
were in the past. His novel `Mark of the Crescent' was published in Australia. He
currently holds the position as Assistant Professor and Head of Social Media
Department at Girne American University, Faculty of Communication. He primarily
lectures in Literature, Creative Writing, Film TV Production, History of
Communication, Film Criticism Analysis, Scriptwriting, Advertising, World Cinema,
Public Relations and Media Studies.
9
Contributors
Philip Effion Ephraim
Philip Effiom Ephraim holds a PhD in Communications and Media Management from
Girne American University, Cyprus. He is currently an Assistant Professor at Cyprus
International University, specializing in: Global media and conflict, Organizational
Behavior and Marketing Management. Previously, he worked in Nigeria as
communications faculty at Cross River University of Technology. His research covers
both critical and mainstream approaches in communication, media and marketing
management especially their applications for socio-political, economic and cultural
reform in developing countries.
Abbas Zakria Qasmi
MA Candidate at GAU, currently working on his thesis
Anna Babitskaya
MA Candidate at GAU
Mercy Okon Ikpi
MA Candidate at GAU, currently working on her thesis
11
Introduction
`Don't shoot the messenger'
Throughout the history, almost every type of media has been blamed and confronted
with accusations of direct or indirect responsibility for things that went wrong. From the
burning of books in the middle ages to theater plays deemed to promote immorality,
comics and TV negatively influencing the learning capacity of kids, cinema used for
manipulative propaganda purposes or the endearing campaigns of Tipper Gore and the
White Anglo-Saxon Protestants against devil-worshipping heavy metal-bands and
derogated, drug-abuse and violence promoting Gangsta Rap polluting radio waves,
corrupting the youth, as well as seemingly homophobic tendencies in Jamaican
dancehall deemed murder music by gay rights-activists media and its content seem
to have been held responsible for every illness that befalls society.
Rappers on the other hand would throw the ball back to those entrusted with influence
for shaping society by considering themselves street journalists, simply capturing and
reflecting what they are exposed to on a daily basis. Satanic black metal bands lean
towards the economically rewarding shock value by underlining the entertaining and
sales-boosting effect of gruesome, martial wardrobe and gallons of blood-substitutes
wasted on stage shows in a time where letting your hair grow over the collar of your
shirt doesn't do the job anymore for adoloscents oriented towards provocation. Art
schools are full with promising attendants that grew up on comics, ego-shooters are
regularly attested a miraculous and de-escalating katharsis-effect by studies, and the
stigma of sensationalism once worn by TV has now migrated into the webspace since a
while. The claim remains the same though, with news now disseminated via online
portals the question of whether or not the spacious coverage of suicides, mass shootings
and terror attacks is fatally tied to a spinning wheel of violence, a vicious circle of
instrumentalized propaganda and guaranteed generation of clicks did not disappear.
12
In addition, new scapegoats have been identified. Relatives of victims have sued
Facebook and Twitter for promoting terrorism by providing a platform for the
distribution of extremist ideology. A generation of digital supermen and virtual beauty
queens are constantly busy uploading proofs for their perfect, happy lives on thoroughly
well-taken accounts yet, hardly managing to live up to their own exaggerations,
instead they become vulnerable to patterns of depression. Social media in general
provides an even more humiliating stage for mobbing than any classroom ever did
seemingly leading to an increase in suicidal victims due to magnified pressure and
uncontroled hate speech in open online-forums are more and more seen as a threat to
social peace. Besides serving as a deadly tool in a considerable amount of deadly selfie-
accidents that even caused the Russian government to run a preventive campaign, smart
phones have been criticized for being highly addictive, dumbing down kids and
involving them in potentially exploitative and compremiting activities like sexting. In
August 2016, an Austrian court obliged a man by decree to de-install the messenger
service Whatsapp on his daughters smart phones due to them repeatedly being victims
of sexual harassment by other users. Are we back to shooting the messenger?
As has been illustrated, the area in which media responsibility is negotiated reaches
much more far than your regular discussion of `video games and violence' or `children
and advertising'. Therefore, in this book we attempt to map out a bigger picture of
possible aspects to be considered, with a special focus on recent developments and
challenges.
On the academic side of things, the generally welcomed open-access to scientific data
on the net in many cases does not seem to encourage students and scholars to intensify
the facilitated research practices but in combination with tools like Google Translate
tends to tempt them to look for an easy way out and to opt for solutions of equally
convenient and unethical nature. Due to the fact that a significant number of studies
dealing in detail with versatile and sophisticated methods being used to commit
academic fraud by students and scholars alike already exists, the opening chapter
13
attempts to shift the focus more on the publishing industry and its ethically and morally
charged aspects of academic integrity and profit-orientation.
Chapter two discusses the ethical dilemma that whistleblowers like Edward Snowden
have to face when they decide to disclose confidential information of public concern to
the media, using DeGeorge's Five Criteria Moral Model and the Universal Dignity
Theory. In the following contribution, ideological stereotypes of the Orient in regard to
the representation of Islam in Western media are pointed out in a Critical Discourse
Analysis of a controversial interview on Fox News. Furthermore, the negotiation of
discursive space in modern Russia in the form of a contemporary court-style TV show
that instigates a discourse of justice between the country's historical past and envisioned
future is demonstrated in Chapter four of this book. The next contribution is looking at
the role of the press in shaping discursive patterns of insecurity and national
development in Nigeria by analyzing respective contributions of national newspapers in
that context. In Chapter six, the representation of the Belorussian movie industry in the
only national magazine dedicated to cinematography serves to discuss the discursive
influence of media on negotiating national identity and self-perception. As a concluding
contribution to this volume, the depiction of Madrasas in Pakistan in The New York
Times is analyzed to furthermore add to the evaluation of media impact on the social
discourse on Islam and terrorism after 9/11.
Martin A. M. Gansinger Ayman Kole, February 2017
14
Martin A. M. Gansinger
Ayman Kole
Plagiarism and profit. Ethical and moral issues of scientific
writing and academic publishing in the 21
st
century
Abstract: The purpose of this article is to provide viewpoints and discussion of a variety
of potentially problematic aspects and mechanisms regarding academic publishing in
relation to economical and ethical issues. Starting with the establishment of wide-scale
internet access in the beginning of the 21st century, a considerable increase of
plagiarism and more sophisticated forms of academic fraud, expanded infrastructure of
academic publication channels and forms, combined with strong tendencies of
concentration in terms of research disciplines and outlets have now led to certain
undesirable developments. Next to the general business model operating according to
these parameters, the purpose, reliability and authenticity of circulated rankings and
grading systems of academic publishers as well as citation indexes will be critically
discussed in relation to new open access possibilities that start to question the outdated
structures of the established system.
Keywords: Plagiarism, Academic Publishing, Academic Rankings, Open Access
Publishing, Media Concentration
15
Introduction
The strong emphasis on education throughout the last century combined with a more
competitive globalized job market has led to a significantly increasing number of young
men and women hungry for post-graduate higher education certificates welcome to
the ever-expanding world of scientific publishing. Never before in history did society
produce such a huge number of higher educated people and higher educated
unemployed people in consequence. Representatives from all walks of life try to
unethically enhance their professional profiles and as shown by former German
Minister of Defense Karl-Theodor zu Guttenberg (Schröder Thagard, 2011), neither
political integrity nor aristocratic descent seem to serve as a protection against the
plague of plagiarism (Eddy, 2013). Considered as one of the key features in evaluating
academic performance, the publication of scientific writing has become the main
element for graduates to set themselves apart from the growing mass of equally trained
uniform competitors (Kellermann, Guggenberger Weber, 2016). With the principles
of demand and supply being placed in favor of the publicity providers, the field of
academic publishing has the potential to turn into a battlefield on which one of the first
two casualties to be mourned might be morals and ethics (Born, 2003; Austin, 2008;
Bretag, 2013; Heckler Forde, 2015). Considering the significant amount of time and
money that is invested in unrightfully getting hold of an academic degree, universities
may ponder the possibility of offering a PhD in plagiarism as the next logical step, with
the successful candidates preferably employing their expertise to severely scrutinize the
academic output for forgery attempts.
16
PhD Plagiarists hijacking Degrees
Without a doubt, plagiarism is one of the most critical issues affecting the academic
world and hence, deserving of serious, immediate attention. It is alarming to see that
many MA or PhD students in our digital era have resorted to techniques that not only
question their academic integrity, but clearly demonstrate the inclination to submit work
that is not their own. Many labels can and have been attributed to its defense: a case of
human error, or carelessness; or perhaps an innocent example of the author not
knowing how to cite a passage properly. Indeed, a small amount can be the result of
such misdeameanors, but the question still stands whether this is a sufficient and
satisfactory argument. Furthermore, such blunders bring to mind the importance of the
draft processes before submission and publication, or at least, the briskness of
corrections once these errors are noticed. If overlooked, then it appears that the hallways
of academia can easily transform into haunting grounds regarding the future careers of
some aspiring scholars, including their supervisors. It would not be farfetched to
speculate that the damage can be extended to the Faculty, and as a result, affect the
reputation of the entire university.Yet, one thing is certain, the academic field has a
primary duty in demonstrating a professional attitude towards promoting sound research
and informing society. Needless to say, this should be conducted within ethical
boundaries, but certainly not to provide a window of opportunity for piracy, that is -
blatant copying, or outright copy-and-paste.
Of course, with the advancement of technology, the internet has re-shaped
communication to the point where it is deemed revolutionary. These changes have
entered society in different formats, from entertainment to business modules to playing
a central role in the education and research sectors. Gone is the physical journey to the
library. The strenuous search through bookshelves has been replaced by hand-held
instruments. These portable devices such as smart phones, notebooks, Ipods and Ipads
(with available wireless internet service) have not only reversed the natural or
traditional act of research, but has done so in great haste. The researcher to use an old
17
idiom has now cut to the chase. Volumes of books have been replaced by abundant
websites, initiated by a few key-words typed in Google search, or similar online motors.
Indeed, the availability of international resources to scholars anywhere in the world,
simultaneously, is advantageous on a tremendous scale and must be acknowledged as a
positive, necessary development. The argument of data collecting being both less time-
consuming and cost efficient cannot be dismissed. In particular, the immediacy of
question-based research in terms of online surveys provides direct electronic storage,
fast compilation and therefore offers a conveniency not reached in the traditional hand-
written method.
However, the drawbacks must also be open to discussion as plagiarism is fast becoming
one of the main problems in academia today. Barrett (2011) mentioned a survey named
`Incidents of cheating in universities, 2005/06 vs 2009/10'
published in The Telegraph
(2011, March, n.d.) conducted in over eighty universities which uncovered how
cheating has become a primary issue and is showing no signs of decreasing in their
country. In fact, during the 2009-10 academic year, over seventeen thousand incidents
were documented; sadly, an increase of 50 per cent in the past four years had been
noted. More alarming, however, is that the true figure is estimated to be much higher, as
details could only be provided on the most serious cases. The article asserts that
plagiarism accounted for the majority of the seventeen thousand incidents at British
universities during that period.
Schroth (2012) described university education as not only intellectual, but also one
concerning morals. Hence, the academic dishonesty of plagiarism should not be counted
as a mistake and should be viewed as a crime. He also quotes Kenneth Goldsmith from
the University of Penssylvania about the process of what is now called `patch writing'
a method of weaving together various fragments from other writers into a `tonally
cohesive whole'. That is, re-phrasing for example a Wikipedia entry with another
article, and merging it with their own additions. Goldsmith sums up his argument by
saying `For them the act of writing is literally moving language from one place to
another.'
18
As can be seen from both articles, plagiarism is likened to an epidemic and a plague to
convey the widespreadedness of this intellectual violation in Britain and the United
States. Yet, the problem cannot be seen as a territorial one, or a matter restricted to
western institutions. In truth, it is a worldwide headache in dedicated scholarly spheres
that demands immediate attention. The recent article in Times of India by B.K. Mishral
(2016) openly highlighted the controversy stirred by a PhD student at Patna University,
India. The research scholar, Kamal Raj Sapkota of Patna University, published an
article by D.C. Mohana of Bangalore University under his own name, and changed the
title to avoid detection. The academic council at Patna University cancelled the
registration of Sapkota, and has also called upon his supervisor D.N. Thakur to further
explain this harmful embarassment which threatens the university's reputation. It must
be noted that this case of plagiarism only came to light when Mohana complained that
his paper had been copied. One wonders, if Mohana had not realized this piracy of his
paper, whether Sapkota would have completed his PhD thesis as a promising young
academic with ease.
In Australia, the nuisance also has taken root and is growing in capacity as covered on
news.com.au in the article `Plagiarism on rise at Australian universities as academics
face pressure to pass international students' (2015, n.d.). The issue was nationalized on
television through the popular Four Corners news program broadcasted on the state-
funded ABC channel. One academic was documented as having said that there are a
group of students who shouldn't be allowed to graduate and another is on record for
expressing how `staggered' they were by the increase in plagiarism. Dr. Zena O'Connor
from the University of Sydney has admitted that there are some cases where plagiarism
constitutes up to eighty per cent, if not one hundred per cent of the paper. O'Connor
told Four Corners that `that level of extreme plagiarism I didn't see five or ten years
ago.'
Equally disturbing, in the field of academia, the plagiarist has nothing to offer. Their
research articles have no intrinsic value, as someone else's ideas are simply reproduced
and passed off as their own. As such, the situation in China warrants serious attention
19
due to the epidemic of plagiarism extending higher into the echelons of Chinese
scholars according to Peter Friedman's (2011) article for Forbes, titled `China's
Plagiarism Problem'. For example, the Vice President of South West Jiotong University
copied large portions of work from a Nobel-nominated Chinese economist for his
doctorate thesis, and the President of Wuhan University of Technology was charged
with stealing the work of a Chilean scientist in an article that had been submitted to a
national science committee. Alarmingly, students in China are commonly translating
Chinese sources into English or using copy-paste directly from Wikipedia. As a result,
there are some grim predictions concerning China's future economic growth if integrity
and innovative thoughts are not encouraged and that could `render this journey quite
difficult'.
One of the more intensively abysmal cases stems from Iran, where the situation has
truly become intolerable in the name of academic sincerity. Bypassing allegations of
President Hassan Rouhani's partially plagiarized doctorate thesis (Zarrinal, 2014), it
appears that Iran actually has a flourishing `dissertation bazaar' industry. These so-
called `groups' began by offering translation, tutoring and likewise services, but rapidly
evolved into masters and PhD dissertation writing for paying students. Reportedly, their
advertising can be seen along street walls, telephone poles, in areas nearby universities,
and even in places restricted to advertising such as traffic signs. It is further revealed
that most Iranian universities do not possess a codified set of rules concerning academic
integrity. Although the Supreme Council of Cultural Revolution penned a document
called Disciplinary Regulations for the Islamic Republic's Students of Higher
Education, apparently it does not cover plagiarized dissertations and no legislation
exists so far to condemn and penalize this unethical industry of `dissertation bazaar' in
their country.
20
Ghost writers in the sky...all along the ivory tower
Without any doubt, the mere existence of professionally organized ghostwriting
agencies must be considered as one of the most sophisticated and therefore most
refutable phenomenon related to unethical academic behavior. Based on a seemingly
legal but morally highly questionable business model, these enterprises according to
their own definition provide their customers with an impeccable written product of
academic nature in exchange for a considerable amount of money (White, 2016). As in
the case of China, the output of about 1800 full-time academic ghostwriters has been
evaluated as nearly 8000 papers in 2011, implying a total monetary amount of 4,46
million US-Dollar (Hu Wu, 2013). Not acting ghostly at all, Thomas Nemet, founder
of Zurich-based Acad Write, is regularly boasting in newspapers about his agency's
presence in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Great Britain, Canada, Australia and the
United States (Kainrath, 2015). Employing over 300 full-time and mostly PhD-holding
ghostwriters, the annual income of the company skyrocketed from around 300,000 Euro
in 2005 to about two million in 2015 (Kohlmaier, 2015).
Referring to shortened duration of studies due to the reforms of Bologna and the
resulting raised pressure for students as a major boost for success, the ghost writers'
legally withstanding claim of defense is that they just provide their clients with what
they ordered from them. Any responsibility of the rather possible illegal use of the work
is simply left to the moral and ethical standards of those who receive the finished
product. Nevertheless, as stated in an interview (Kainrath, 2015), the package usually
also includes a detailed briefing on how to properly present or convey the piece of work
to an audience if, for some strange reason you get caught up in a hearing of some
sort...
Ironically stating to provide work possibilities for degree-holding authors, these
organizations function as agents between academic aspirants who might lack time or
intellectual capacities paired with a strange ability to remain untangled by basic moral
21
or ethical concerns and economic strain in a fully discrete and anonymous transaction
process. It goes without saying that on the highly elaborated structure of organized
academic fraud the crime remains untraceable given the case that the perpetrator
manages to convince a committee that he or she is defending her own original work.
This implies that while on the level of a seminar paper the cheating attempt might
well pass undetected due to the undisputable content that the customers pay for (APA,
2016) members of academic examination committees are well advised to consider the
possibility that their candidate might not be the originator of the actual work and
therefore put a stronger emphasis on questioning techniques being capable to expose
such unacceptable efforts (Honig Bedi, 2012; Ison, 2015).
More than ever, the personal integrity of academics as well as their professional
expertise stands as the last line of defense between the already shaken integrity of
ethical and moral academic standards adhered to for centuries. Now, an ever-growing
wave of express-degree-holders march through our assaulted institutions (Mertz, 2010),
driven by the impulse to conform to the ever-increasing requirements of the modern job
market by any means necessary. The disastrous effects of the Bologna-process (Breit,
2016; Kellermann et. al, 2016; Knoll, 2017) turning institutions entrusted with higher
education into a usability-oriented research industry and passionate scientists into
academic administrators has been suggested to lead towards a devaluation of degrees
and as a consequence to a situation, in which once again origin and habitus decide
upon social mobility (Kellermann et. al, 2016).
22
Lost in Translation or The French Dis-Connection
While these destructive mechanisms might mainly be confined to the abusive usage of
those envisioning an unearned diploma down at the end of their strenuous studies, one
other aspect related to the profane market mechanisms in the academic context seems to
concern those who are, unfortunately, entrusted with disseminating knowledge
themselves. It's unsurprising to also find the dishonorable names of active Faculty
members coping in their very own way with the burden of the 'publish or perish'-dictate
(Nygaard, 2015), another group of academics might be capable to produce proper work
but due to a deficiency in English language skills struggles with being cut-off from the
international arena where real recognition is negotiated, due to exposure to a much
wider audience that is willingly or involuntarily agreeing upon and reinforcing the
undisputed Anglo-Saxon dominance (Enrique Hamel, 2007; Jenkins, 2013). Given a
system where international publications by far outweigh those of national (Altbach,
2004, p. 11; Adler Harzing, 2009, p. 76), this might impose a problem to proud and
brave bearers of native culture and language like the ones in France for instance,
where nevertheless academics and universities are more and more pushed into
internationalization lately to establish notable global presence in order to remain
competitive (
Evans Cosnefroy, 2013)
. Although the question can and should be
raised, how the term international should actually be defined within the context of
academic publications (Paasi, 2005, p. 776) does it need to be necessarily equivalent
with the use of English language or could a German publication that might be attributed
with an potential impact in Austria and Switzerland also be considered as such?
The fact remains, that the lack of Anglo-Saxon sources in the reference lists of many
French academics (
Bajerski, 2011, p. 9)
does not stem from mere patriotism but is
signifying that due to lingual deficiencies both the productive as well as the receptive
participation in the international academic discourse is still improvable (Lauby, 2013).
In particular, the state of intellectual dislocation (Flowerdew, 2000, p. 131), which
might be embedded and somehow safeguarded by a specific political system (Musselin,
23
2005)
that never really stopped to hold up a post-colonial self-perception of cultural
superiority (
Musselin, 2013)
adds to the fact that there are countries where the pressure
for academics to contribute to the international relevance of the national higher
education system can be felt stronger. Therefore, desperate academics often consult
non-credited translators (Harzing, 2012, p. 88), who provide their clients with a
seemingly competitive level of English and attest them with an illusionary international
impact (Lerman, 2001). As a consequence, the publishers of such deceptive work are to
make sure that the article or paper does not ask for the proper accreditation of an
unmentioned Anglo-Saxon acrobat, turning the assumably impeccable original
statement into one of international consideration.
To return back to the student side of things, the advent of Google Translate must have
been hailed as a true revelation among the rows of those who prefer to invest time in
more and more sophisticated cheating methods than their own proper work. One can
only count on the probable appearance of nonsensical literal translations in this case, but
to come up with undisputable proofs for the attempted fraud is extensively difficult,
especially if the origin of the source is outside the range of the Latin-based alphabet and
composed in Cyrillic or Arabic letters. Given the rather high possibility that the source
in question may have been generated by a convenient click on the scholarly offspring of
the world's most popular search engine is only emphasizing a far more complex and
problematic tendency that shall be dealt with later in this chapter. However, the wide-
scale application of cross-language plagiarism detection systems (Kent Salim, 2010)
should definitely help to handle that incredibly time-wasting activity for everybody
involved.
24
Polarizing publishing power The Questionable Quintet
Media concentration caused by global dynamics of the 21
st
century has turned out to be
one of the most dangerous and problematic developments in regard to democracy and
pluralism in modern society (Meier Trappel, 1998; Horwitz, 2005; Baker, 2002;
Baker, 2006; Van Cuilenber, 2007; Winseck, 2008). Even without thinking about the
outcome of combining ownership and political power as manifested in Italy by Silvio
Berlusconi (Ricolfi, 1997; Hibberd, 2007; Mancini, 2008) or infamous media-moguls
like Ted Turner or Rupert Murdoch (Josifides, 1997; Compaine Gomery, 2000), the
undisputed dominance of less than a handful of international news agencies providing
selected content for the vast majority of media organizations worldwide should be and
has been critically reviewed (Wasburn, 1995; Hafez, 1999; Bennett, 2004; Paterson,
2005; Arsenault Castells, 2008). The fact that a rather similar tendency within the
scope of academic publishing passes rather undetected and has not been questioned and
problematized by the same sharp scholars may be explained less by a lack of analytic
ability but maybe more a certain kind of dependency on the very same objects of what
would arguably be a daring but nevertheless quite necessary critical examination.
Recent evaluations related to the problem can be termed nothing else than an alarming
rude awakening to a long and deep scientific slumber that enabled a handful of clearly
profit-oriented enterprises to establish an undisputed oligopoly of ethically and morally
questionable nature.
If a quick glimpse on the surface of things of this blind spot reveals that only five big
players are accounting for half of all academic publications in scientific journals and
over seventy per cent in the fields of social sciences (
Larivière, Haustein Mongeon,
2015
), everybody interested in independent research and academic pluralism should
rightfully feel concerned about that. Should you already be or plan to be part of the
seventy per cent you may as well prefer to stick with business as usual and do another
study on social media and viral marketing possibilities. But who is this questionable
quintet comprised of, that without any doubt has a strong impact on the careers and
25
whereabouts of those busy with working up their way on the steep and slippery stairs of
the ivory tower?
While acknowledging the historical role of publishers for the dissemination of
knowledge over the last 350 years,
Larivière, Haustein and Mongeon (2015) strongly
question their necessity in the digital era. Nevertheless, by analyzing forty-five million
documents they disclose that within the last forty years five big players identified as
Sage, Springer, Taylor Francis, Wiley-Blackwell and Reed-Elsevier have been able to
control more than half of the market due to a series of rapid mergers and acquisitions. It
is noteworthy to mention that the researchers did not witness any increase in visibility
or citations after one of the purchased journals got owned by one of these major
publishers. They furthermore criticize the attested profit margins of about forty percent,
resulting from academics willingly providing them with free content and quality control
services in form of peer-review, only to buy a copy of the journal for an often ridiculous
amount of money. Questioning any real added value on behalf of the publishers, the
results provided by Larivière et al. ask for nothing else than a radical and long overdue
rethinking of these very structures of what could be termed a proper model of
voluntarily intellectual slavery.
Citation Indexes, Search Engine Science and competitive
disadvantages for marginalized disciplines
Considering what has been said about the Questionable Quintet in the last section of
this chapter it does not come as a surprise that these big players are also heavily
represented among what makes peers heartbeat skip regularly when being mentioned
SSCI, the Social Science Citation Index. Revered by mostly US-oriented scholars as a
kind of naturally formed Olympus-like measuring system of Academic performance, it
classifies among their European counterparts more often as a critically questioned
26
artificial construct lacking a clear and transparent mode of operation. In relation, Adler
and Harzing (2009) not only deemed the established system of academic rankings as
dysfunctional for encouraging domesticized research in limited fields of socially
accepted and requested areas, but furthermore criticized the rather exclusive and
random, fetish-like focus on journals in general and certain specific journals in
particular (p. 75). It has been mentioned (Kellermann et. al, 2016) that the idea of
universities as business corporations would result in substantial treatments regarding the
actual heart of the respective scientific matter being replaced by market-approved
applied research, considerations of perception and visibility, and the orientation towards
citation indexes and A-journals would lead to a self-castration of critical intelligence.
The institution of the SSCI, sometimes more correctly referred to as a product (Michel,
2011), necessarily tends to be guided more by the rules of the market than any ivory
idealism and to function more in favor for its very own US-based cooperators and
fellowship than any others (Mohsen, 2016). Once again, Sage is prominently featured
and controls most of the rather few listed journals dealing with Media and
Communication, which leads to another problematic tendency that it is to be held at
least to a certain degree directly accountable for. The fact that it features hundreds of
journals dedicated to fields such as Psychology or Economy compared to a very limited
number of publications open for submissions from Media and Communication
researchers which on top of it happen to be mostly controlled by one and the same
owner not only creates distinctive competitive disadvantages for the affected group of
researchers (Thomas, 1980) but furthermore bears the risk to simply marginalize whole
academic disciplines (Bell, 2010; Chou, 2014).
Now, it may spark some curiosity among contemporaries in an age significantly shaped
and distinctively dominated by media and internet as to why there is not much more
space, relevance and structural as well as project-based funding (Willmott, 2011)
granted to research that is trying to cope with the directly related fast and profound
changes the whole of humanity is subjected to in our digital times. The reason for the
significant under-representation of Media and Communication in the SSCI is definitely
27
not to be found in a lack of dedicated journals and publications unfortunately and for
some rather non-transparent reason the majority of them are deemed to not be
considered for inclusion. By 2011, in its 36
th
year of existence, COMMUNICATIONS
The European Journal of Communication Research received the honor to be indexed by
SSCI as the first and only German-based publication representing the discipline at that
time (COMMUNICATIONS, Press Release, 2011). Is it because the impact of these
publications is not yet documented by a measuring system that would be acknowledged
by SSCI which would mean to openly strengthen a direct competitor for relevance and
reputation on the market or is it because these journals in question are being
controlled by independent owners such as universities or institutions of higher education
that are at least partly allowed to operate outside the mere market-based boundaries of
SSCI which would again classify them as indirect competitors for relevance and
reputation?
Talking about what turns out to be a highly competitive market, another huge player that
is tied to its very own influential machinery whose parameters tempt to be tempered
with by those who control it and those who use it, has recently entered the game. Due to
its specific expansive business approach, it perfectly demonstrates and underlines the
true nature of these indexes as a tailored product that is unable to objectively represent
and measure the impact of academic performance (Harzing, 2012) and as a paradox, is
nevertheless granted more and more relevance on the scientific job market (Nygaard,
2015). Initially attested with the potential to successfully challenge the very expensive
monopolist SSCI (Michel, 2011), Google Scholar's rather impressive expansive
development patterns have been verified in more recent studies (Harzing, 2014).
Although the system remains open for criticism in terms of unethical manipulation
possibilities regarding the generation of citations as well as a tendency of mistakenly
assorted dirty citations due to similarities in name or even fully intended. In terms of
performance, it has been certified a higher accuracy in assessing the impact of journals
than the ISI Web of Knowledge model (Harzing, 2013) due to the use of Hirsch's h-
index as a metric base (Harzing Van Der Wal, 2009).
28
Publishers' ratings and rankings...mixed plates of `tutti frutti'?
With the editorial contribution of academic publishers in the 21
st
century already being
questioned earlier in this chapter (
Larivière, Haustein Mongeon, 2015), it would be
interesting to know what would be the difference between a publisher that is generating
money from authors and others that offer cost-free publications.
Upon request, one of
the editors of German-based Peter Lang Academic Publishers basically stated that what
they provide for in exchange for a subsidy fee as compared to cost-free publishers is
their international standing. Which might pass as a fair enough business model,
considering that one might as well willingly pay for a German car as a status symbol
while a Japanese would basically do the job. On the other hand, saving up money to be
able to publish with a seemingly decent publisher according to a general agreement
based on reputation and rankings seems to be a bit contradictory to the idea of sharing
research on a more or less real time scale when it still has a chance to exert some
relevant and impact.
The problem starts when highly influential evaluation lists (Morris, Harvey Kelly,
2009) of academic publishers such as SENSE Ranking of Academic Publishers (The
Dutch Research School for Socio-Economic and Natural Sciences of the Environment,
2009) are being circulated, that rank Peter Lang equally with US-based Nova Science as
C-grade international and excellent national publishers. The latter has been deemed as
perhaps the most controversial long-established academic publisher in the world by
Harzing (2012, p. 80), as well as defined as widely known though controversial and
`unconventional' academic publisher (2012, p. 70). Librarian Jeffrey Beall who is
regularly providing an updated list of predatory publishers classified Nova Science as
not a predatory publisher, but it is a bottom-tier
one (Beall, 2015)
.
However, it has been
heavily refuted for generating content by using patchwork-writing techniques or simply
reprinting scholarly public domain material (Bade, 2007). Which is something that
similarly shunned academic publishing outfits are constantly confronted with
(Haug,
29
2013; Tin et al., 2014; Berger Cirasella, 2015)
, which do not show up in the
mentioned SENSE-ranking for instance.
To say the least, being confronted with such obvious inconsistencies concerning the
evaluated moral integrity of possible publishing partners leaves an ethically oriented
academic rather confused, if not making the evaluating bodies look slightly
questionable themselves. However, the appearance of the French-based Edition
L'Harmattan that is widely considered an established and highly reputed publisher
throughout continental Europe or Addis Ababa University Press (Addis Ababa
University Press, n.a.) with hardly more than five annual English publications in the
same category as Peter Lang and Nova Science just adds to the confusion and makes the
menu look like a mixed plate of tutti frutti, providing further substance to the debate of
rating versus ranking (Harzing et al., 2009). Needless to say, other lists that are
circulating do not necessarily agree with the one of SENSE. However, The City
University of Hong Kong, in an evaluation paper of publishers that serves the purpose
to define criteria for performance-based pay-review, grants Peter Lang as well as Nova
Science a rating of B+, but includes neither L'Harmattan nor Addis Ababa University
Press.
Furthermore, it is noteworthy to point out that the `quality' of a publisher can be
obviously assessed by different tools, with SENSE basically using the number of library
catalogue holdings as opposed to common survey data or the rather self-perpetuating
category of `reputation' (Jordy, McGrath Rutledge, 1999). In that regard it is
interesting to mention that, as
Zuccala, Guns, Cornacchia and Bod (2015, p. 1334) have
put it, (t)he
concept of `prestige', which is slightly different from `quality', is typically
associated with academic research advice and the selection of a university press by a
scholar who has written a new book. Appropriately, according to
Wager, Fiack, Graf,
Robinson and Rowlands (2014), science journal editors tend to be more concerned with
redundant publication than aspects of forgery, plagiarism and ghostwriting and
generally seem to underestimate the issue while at the same time over-estimate their
capacity to disclose such attempts. Unlike the normative obligations towards academic
30
excellence and social responsibility that has been attributed to and requested from them
(Jiang, 2006), the simple economic realities of this business model might ask for very
different practices. While the few major players like the big five monopolists or
elite
academic journal corporate conglomerates
(Harzing, 2012, p. 65) mentioned earlier
mainly concentrate on selling the most relevant research in the very field to the big-
budget market of universities and libraries
(
Larivière, Haustein, Mongeon, 2015),
mid- or low-range publishers would to a considerable degree need to rely on submission
fees and copy purchases by prospective authors.
Therefore, the question might be asked, how often such a publisher can afford to turn
down submissions that may fail to fully meet the requirements in terms of authenticity,
originality and integrity? As pointed out by Clark and Smith (2015), a certain type of
publishers are actually hiring staff from countries like Pakistan (APA, 2016) and India
in order to keep the low-cost profile. According to Harzing (2012, p. 87), a considerable
amount of questionable journals based in the developing world feature articles in
English, basically offering their authors to provide them with evidence for international
output by applying language and editing skills in exchange for submission fees. A
considerable amount of this type of articles lack of original ideas or reflective thinking
and can be summed up by some juggling of data doesn't make a proper paper. In
addition, the problems of hijacked journals (Dadkhah et al., 2015; Jalalian Dadkhah,
2015), manipulated impact-factors (Jalalian, 2015) and especially hired editorial board
members for the purpose to attract authors (Dadkhah, Tarhini, Lyashenko Jazi, 2015)
ask for more investigation and serve as just a few strong reasons to urgently re-think the
way academic research is evaluated (Jalalian Mahboobi, 2014) since this also might
affect the scientific rankings of whole countries (Dadkhah Maliszewski, 2015).
Jordy
et al. (1999) have discussed the meaning of a publisher's symbolic capital as one of the
very consistent but rather difficult to quantify criteria in that context and eventually
suggest a model that juxtaposes the perception of publishers among scholars with the
use of recorded citations which would basically lead back to the previous chapter.
31
Between open access and closed doors
Print journalism is still recovering from the blow that has been dealt to it by the arrival
of wide-scale digital media twenty years ago, but it has partly managed to successfully
migrate into the online market by dragging along old and new advertising clients as well
as faithful readerships willing to pay subscription fees (Kawamoto, 2003; Scott, 2005;
Pavlik, 2013; Herbert, 2015). The music industry for a long time ignored the web-
developments before going toe-to-toe with revolutionary, copyright-violating content
providers such as Napster and a final attempt to gain back lost grounds by taking over
or establishing legal digital distribution tools like i-tunes or streaming services like
Spotify (Reese, 2000; Rhoads Stager, 2001; Lam Tan, 2001;
Bhattacharjee, Gopal
Sanders, 2003;
McLeod, 2005). Even directing dinosaurs of the likes of Steven
Spielberg and George Lucas (Walker, 2013) have attested a different future for
traditional cinema in where the casual stroll to the movies would turn into a more
exclusive and occasional celebrated outing like a visit to a fine restaurant in the face
of the inevitable victory of web-based competitors like Netflix and the view-on-demand
principle (Savage, 2014).
While providers of content and space from all walks of publishing-life in their very own
speed dealt with, reacted and adjusted to the new realities of the digital era, the ivory
tower of academia seems to stand strong as a lone and solid landmark of a long lost
past, unimpressed with rather logical and purposeful technological possibilities such as
open access publishing which passes as nothing else but a perfectly habitual extension
for the digital native academic (Squire Jourian, 2015). Nevertheless, reality has it that
despite the huge technological changes in practical terms, the average academic is still
measured more by the reputation of their publishing house than the actual content of his
work which might be freely accessible on the internet (West Rich, 2012).
Using a rather sharp analogy, Kant's 'Die Kritik der reinen Vernunft' might as well have
been rejected due to the fact that he used the adjustable letter printing technology to
32
deliver his ideas instead of passing by the sacrosanct keepers of book-manufacturing
knowledge of the pre-Gutenberg galaxy. Interestingly enough, more innovative and
realistic academic publishers tend to favor going with the signs of the times themselves
(Bachmann, 2016), being fully in line with the Council of the European Union's
declaration from May 27
th
, 2016, that stresses that open science entails amongst others
open access to scientific publications and optimal reuse of research data, citizens
science, and research integrity (The Council of the European Union, 2016, p. 4). The
important question that cannot be avoided now anymore is 'Do we understand the
purpose of the publishing process as a means to make our work accessible as fast as
possible for the largest possible number of audience composed of the casually
interested and experts alike, there is no reason a publication cannot be peer-reviewed in
a public context, plain and transparent for everybody to follow or do we stick to a
rather inaccessible and potentially elitist system (Osterloh Frey, 2009) in which a vast
body of work is kept away from the public eye due to a severe and time-consuming
selection process that potentially encourages unethical behavior patterns (Cawley, 2011,
p. 206) and delays the publication of results (p. 209)?
The latter option can only be characterized as a loss for scientific research and the
corresponding ethical aspects of academic activity. Benefitting are the monopolized and
seemingly rightfully recognized publishers that have established a perfect business
model (
Larivière, Haustein, Mongeon, 2015)
of exploiting pressured academics by
selling their very own freely submitted content back to them for considerable
publication fees or copy item prices in a carefully constructed and widely unquestioned
frame of international relevance and impact (West Rich, 2012).
Further research needs to be done on the many prosperous businesses that have been
washed upon the shore of the scientific world with the wave of predatory publication
practices. Operating in the sense of academic tourism agencies, the role of `for-profit'-
conference organizers such as SGEM is asking for close inspection, as suggested by
Beall (2016). According to him, the company is based in Bulgaria and lures naïve
scholars with illegitimate use of logos from respected companies in the scholarly
33
publishing industry and self-styled, meaningless awards of Academic Conference
Excellence Certified Event into the heart of Europe with seemingly prestigious
happenings such as the SGEM
International Multidisciplinary Scientific Conference on
Social Sciences Arts.
Conclusion
For a profession that is widely attributed with the intersubjective systematic inquiry and
critical questioning of ideas, concepts and given structures, surprisingly little scholarly
attention by has been granted to its very own means and conditions of generating and
disseminating the research work that is central to their mutual evaluation. What was
structured, operated and organized for centuries by an historically grown network of
established and trusted publishers of elitist character has simply been swept away with
the advent of digitalization and to a certain degree democratization of knowledge in the
beginning of the 21
st
century. However, within the last few years some kind of
organized protest against inevitable disadvantages resulting from the common practice
of monopolized market structures has been forming. Up to date, more than 16.000
academics have signed an online-petition against the business practices of Elsevier (The
Cost of Knowledge, n.a)
As for the problems related to the various aspects of academic fraud, the way that has
been pursued the most severe might be the development of efficient detection programs
that constantly ask for further technological advancements and adjustments (Beasley,
2004;
Jenkins Helmore, 2009; Patel, Bakhtiyari, Taghavi, 2011
). Others approach
the issue from the side of students by advocating attempts to concentrate and gather data
on students' explanations for their unethical and immoral behavior, which can lead from
lack of interest to demotivated lecturers, unwilling to invest time and effort in proper
solutions
(Forgas, Negre, Rasco, Amengual, 2011)
.
34
Referring to the responsibilities of the lecturers as a starting point for their suggestions,
Gomez-Espinosa, Francisco and Moreno-Ger (2016) put the focus on developing a
more creative approach of designing tasks and activities to base the grades upon that
encourage students to not be in need for internet-based plagiarism techniques. Last but
not least the significant transformation from elite-producing institutions to highly under-
ressourced mass education facilities of universities since the 1990s will have to be taken
into consideration without a doubt (
Singh Remenyi, 2016, p. 4).
35
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