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4
Introduction
A number of educators in recent years have argued that the dominance
of English has created structural and cultural inequalities between
developed and developing countries, and as a result the teaching of
English creates cultural and linguistic stereotypes not only of English as a
language but also of the native speakers of this language (Kubota:1998).
Yet, learning English continues to be an important goal of people, just as
learning to be expert in technology in the modern world (LoCastro, 2012:
108). With the rush of globalization, people have begun to realize that it
is not sensible to reject learning and using English the de facto
international language today- as it will deprive them of enriching
interactions with multicultural communities and traditions through
English language (Canagarjah:2012). People understand that the use of
English will help them to get closer and embrace the world against the
backdrop of globalization. English as a global language enables people to
more opportunities and therefore maintain a competitive edge in their
study and career. Foreign language learners, on the other hand, need also
to be given a chance to explore the concept of English as a world
language and to develop a critical perspective towards native-oriented
language ideology, as the world is multilingual and has much linguistic
diversity (ibid.). Nevertheless, Kaikkonen (2004) mentions that some
people are xenophobic as far as English is concerned. It is quite normal
that fear of the unknown, which is the literal meaning of xenophobia
(from Greek kenos and phobia), appears to lie deep in most humans.
What is unknown is considered dangerous and threatening, perhaps due
to its perceived unpredictability. In this vein, Alptekin (2000) argues that
it has been seen that Arab EFL learners conceive of English learning
materials which have not been cultured and modified to suit their
5
country's needs and culture as a threat to national identity. Therefore, the
current study aims at shedding light on Iraqi EFL learners' conceptions,
attitudes, or views concerning this concept and to what extent it may have
a negative effect on their learning English as a foreign language. In
association with these aims, it is hypothesized that: (1) xenophobia
hinders deep-level learning, (2) learners' attitudes towards English as a
foreign language differs depending on whether they are rural or urban,
and (3) the disposition of female learners towards xenophobia differs in
comparison to that of male learners. To achieve the aims of the study and
test the validity of its hypotheses, a questionnaire is conducted on 50
undergraduate Iraqi EFL learners from the University of Babylon/
College of Education for Human Sciences/ Department of English during
the academic year 2016-2017 so as to educe information concerning their
views about xenophobia in relation to their learning English as a foreign
language.
Xenophobia and cultural diversity
The Collins English dictionary defines xenophobia as the
"unreasonable fear or hatred of foreigners or strangers or of that which is
foreign or strange." This fear of foreigners and strangers may extend to
fear of their language, politics and culture.
Broadly speaking, Castro and Bohorquez (2006) state that interacting
successfully with people from different cultures depends on our capacity
to understand not only our own culture but the culture of others.
Moreover, in teaching a foreign language, one should keep in mind that
each culture behaves, thinks, communicates, perceives reality and reacts
to it in a particular way, thus language teachers need to create a sense of
cross-cultural awareness, cultural diversity and communication across
6
cultures among learners. In foreign language learning, knowledge of
linguistic structures alone is not enough; learners have to understand the
way of life of a foreign culture and the individuals living in it (Hinojosa:
2000). Thus, teachers must promote socio-cultural awareness to confront
all the negative manifestations of xenophobia including a fear of losing
identity (Web resource 1).
Smelser and Baltes (2001) assert that xenophobia symbolizes "fear of
strangers" and is taken to mean "hatred of strangers" instead of having
global peace and dialogue. It can be understood as an attitudinal
orientation of hostility against non-natives in a given population.
Nakmura (2002) mentions that xenophobia is embodied in discriminatory
attitudes and behavior, and often culminates in violence, abuses of all
types, and the exhibiting of hatred and jumping into the abyss of the
cultural and religious fault lines or battle lines in the name of the clash of
civilizations.
Xenophobia overlaps with racism although they are distinct
phenomena. This distinction reveals itself in the fact that while racism
entails distinctions based on physical differences such as skin colour,
facial features and the like, xenophobia implies behaviour based on the
idea that the other is a foreigner or originates from outside the community
or nation. It is a feeling of hostility to anything foreign because there is a
concentration on national cultures and only meager attention is paid to
aspects of culture beyond those already found in textbooks (Web resource
2). Accordingly, the terms xenophobia and racism are sometimes
confused and used interchangeably because people who share a national
origin may also belong to the same race. Due to this, xenophobia is
usually distinguished by opposition to foreign culture.It is a political term
and not a recognized medical phobia (ibid.).
7
Xenophobia violates human rights and social justice. Waghid (2004:
26) considers racialism, anti-cosmopolitanism, narrow identity politics,
and the denial of cultural freedoms as core components of xenophobia It
runs in opposition to the very heart of inclusion rather than fostering
respect for "otherness" and encouraging tolerance and empathy towards
other cultures by reducing ethnocentricity and stereotypical thinking.
Thus, Waghid (ibid.) suggests that citizenship education is one way of
overcoming xenophobia because it cultivates compassion, i.e., that is
"cultivating in learners the ability to imagine the experiences of others
and to participate in their sufferings". Similarly, Burtonwood (2002: 73)
demonstrates that citizenship education requires learners to use their
imagination to consider other people's experiences and be able to think
about, express and explain views that are not their own.
Language and culture are symbiotic; cultivating global literacy for a
peaceful world is one of the most urgent tasks for educators and
researchers. Global literacy includes cross-cultural competence,
sensitivity with transcultural and transnational perspectives to get along
with the rest of the world. It also requires a communicative competence in
English as an international language to have global and peaceful dialogue
with people of the world where they respect each other's cultural identity
and avoid negative stereotypes and prejudice that come from the lack of
information and direct contact. In fact, effective verbal and nonverbal
communication has a dramatic power because communication overcomes
ignorance, indifference and intolerance (Mckay: 2001).
In classrooms, students shape their conceptions or misconceptions of
the world. Misunderstanding can lead to prejudice against color,
language, social status, physical appearance, and power. If there is no
8
stop to this, the problem may develop into frustration and anger to be
transformed at a later stage into xenophobia, causing in some cases
catastrophic consequences. So, it is believed that the key effective
solution to these problems is the cross-cultural understanding, knowledge,
and willingness to change. In other words, teachers of a foreign language
can promote awareness in the classroom by being tolerant and respectful
of different cultural identities and endeavor to familiarize their students
with different cultural ideologies and broaden their horizons by placing
greater weight on the cultural background of the target language and
trying to raise some kind of a critical understanding (Nieto: 2002).
Moreover; educators and syllabus designers have to implement the
cultural aspects of both foreign countries as a paramount issue in the
teaching of a target language (Castro and Bohorquez: 2006).
Research Methodology
The tool of the study was a paper and pencil questionnaire designed to
elicit the views of the students on how they perceived the xenophobia
phenomenon. Students were invited to participate in this exploratory
study as part of their regular classes. The researchers decided to
implement the questionnaire to elicit information about students'
interpretation of xenophobia as a phenomenon and a concept embedded
in intracultural and intercultural matters. Kanjee (2004: 293) states that
questionnaires are utilized mostly to collect data on phenomena which are
not easily observed such as attitudes, motivations, and self-concepts. The
proposed questionnaire consisted of twelve questions to which
participants were asked to respond in order to take cognizance of their
own real attitudes and stance towards xenophobia. The researchers are
available for explanation to eschew any possible misunderstanding and
misinterpretation.
9
Sample of the Study
The participants were fifty Iraqi EFL learners in the University of
Babylon majoring in English language and literature at the College of
Education/ Department of English during the academic year 2016-2017
.The age of the participants ranged between 20-22 years. They were in
their fourth and last academic year of study and have almost completed
all the requirements for the major. These participants have never visited
any English speaking country including US and UK to develop attitudes
towards them but have been exposed to these foreign cultures most likely
through the media.
The students all lived in Iraq/Babylon District. Arabic is their native
language. They were males and females; some of them came from the
countryside, while others resided in urban areas. The reason behind this
variation was to show whether /or not participants' views regarding
xenophobia, as the fear of English as a foreign language, may differ with
respect to their gender and place of residence. Therefore, it was
hypothesized that rural learners were more fanatic and bigoted towards
the foreign language and culture than their urban class mates. As another
hypothesis set out by the researchers, female learners, generally, were
more liberal and less bigot than their male class mates with respect to
learning English as a foreign language and with respect to the western
culture.
Notes:
(1) The number of students that have been examined varies as follows: 25 urban
learners divided into 13 males and 12 females; 25 rural learners divided into 13 males
and 12 females.
(2) It should be taken into consideration that the percentage in most questions is not
100% because some participants do not answer the questions and others write
irrelevant answers.
10
Results and Discussions
After having a look at the participants' responses to the questions they are
given, the researchers are now concerned with analyzing these responses to
accentuate the participants' impressions about xenophobia.
Question (1): What is your conception about xenophobia?
In responding to this question, most participants, notably twelve rural
male learners (24%) and nine female learners (18%) agreed that xenophobia
has been the fear of or antipathy toward English as a foreign language. They
argued that although they have been studying English as a foreign language
and although it is a universal language, more specifically a lingua franca,
they have developed strong feelings of dislike and hatred toward it. In fact,
this might reflected their strong enthusiasm towards their native language
and their inclination to preserve it with no competitor. They showed that
their dislike toward English as a foreign language was associated with their
hatred of foreigners, particularly Americans and British arguing that the
western civilization was corrupt and materialistic.
Other learners, particularly ten urban male students (20%) and twelve
urban female students (24%), mentioned that they possessed no conception
about what xenophobia was because they have developed a liking for
English as a foreign language and because they stated that they were not at
enmity with foreigners. On the contrary, they reflected their desire and
aspiration to learn English arguing that learning English could open the door
to a new social civilization. They showed their appreciation to the exposure
to different cultures which could make them more knowledgeable, tolerant
and respectful of ideological differences. This shows that females are
significantly less likely to express xenophobic attitudes towards individuals
of o
from
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McKay (2
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ails that e
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Chart (1)
onalities, r
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. Lamb (ib
rural areas
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2001) sugg
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: The per
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11
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ountry, the
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ves exerts a
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ors must
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individua
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a (2002) m
e same co
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nguage and
t foster
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al cultures
f the overa
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urban males
e they are
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ommunity
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0
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and
erent
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ence
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onal
ason
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in a
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es
1
12
Question (2): What images spring to your minds when you hear the word
xenophobia?
At the very onset, rural students' answers to this question were the
warm bed for feud, animosity, colonialization, and outrage. Thirteen male
rural students (26%) and ten female rural students (20%) responded to the
question by saying that the images which came to their minds when they
heard the word xenophobia were those of animosity and colonization.
They associated English language with occupation and colonialism. This
might be so because they were conservatives: they favoured maintenance
of the status quo; they did not prefer openness to the outside world. This
does not suggest that everybody who lives in rural areas is a bigot but the
reality of the situation is that there are far few people and they tend to be
much more homogenized. Rural people speak with one voice for the most
part and they become extraordinarily hostile very quickly. They are
insular and they do not welcome outside ideas and thus they are more
patriotic openly.
Nine urban males (18%) and twelve urban females (24%), on the other
hand, said that internationalism, freedom, liberation, and development
came to their minds when they heard the word xenophobia. This suggests
that the people who live in urban areas are more open- minded. They are
used to accounting for the view point of the "other" and tend to be less
intense about what they perceive as the western values. To them, there are
many different values; such a thing does not make them less fanatic but
it makes them less chauvinistic.
Principally, urban female participants mentioned that they developed
no passive feelings toward English as a foreign language therefore they
were not xenophobic. Moreover, their responses showed that the images
13
which revolved in their minds were those of freedom, liberation,
civilization, and cultural transfer. This might reflect women's desire to
prestige. They viewed English as a prestigious language; therefore they
crept towards mastering it. As such, women, whether consciously or not,
use the prestigious forms to declare that they are women. Various studies
inadvertently uncover that women are more conscious of prestige than
men. Women across many cultures seem more likely than men to modify
their speech towards the prestigious language. Since English has acquired
the status of being an international language, it is likely to be viewed as
being of high prestige. Different languages are accorded prestige based
upon factors including international standing or the prestige of its
speakers.
This suggests that urban Iraqi learners have a positive attitude towards
the West in general. Such a finding agrees with Zogby (2004), Furia and
Lucas (2008), and Esposito (2011) who assert that the Arab world does
not have a monolithic attitude towards the West by any means. The
admiration of the West for its technological advancements, values of
democracy and freedom are highly appreciated. Arab students' attitudes
are not based on a clash of Eastern and Western civilizations and that the
conflict is not caused by religious or cultural differences but
disagreements are rather based on the Western pragmatic foreign policies.
The coming to yet chart demonstrates the percentages of the overall
responses to question 2:
C
Qu
R
fem
con
mem
mai
as t
has
Eng
onc
dee
qua
leas
xen
of
wou
lang
who
Chart (2)
uestion (3)
Rural lea
males (22%
nnected w
mbership
intain thei
the feeling
s come fr
glish to th
ce. Zogby
eply tied in
asi offic
st partially
Eight urb
nophobic,
envy and
uld not a
guage wh
o opposed
: The per
): Where d
arners, mo
%) argued
with the
in the n
ir native la
gs of dislik
from milit
he fact that
y (2004) m
nto the ide
cial revere
y responsi
an female
they thou
d trepidati
accept the
ich is com
d the use
rural female
rcentages
does xenop
ore specif
d that xeno
concept
nation whe
anguage.
ke or hatr
tary occu
t American
mentions
eology of
ence for n
ible for the
e learners
ght that xe
ion. They
fact that
mmonly us
of English
rural m
s
14
of the ove
phobia co
fically tw
ophobia m
of natio
ere they
Further, t
red of fore
upation. T
ns and Br
that this
Islam and
nativistic i
eir jingois
(16%) sta
enophobia
y mention
t English
sed as an i
h stood in
u
males
erall resp
ome from?
welve mal
may result
onalism, t
have live
they ment
eigners as
They attrib
itish have
is so bec
d the natio
dentity, x
sm.
ated that a
a has eman
ned that th
is a wide
internation
n fear agai
rban females
ponses to q
?
les (24%)
t from and
that is th
ed and th
tioned that
well as th
buted the
occupied
ause Arab
nal identit
xenophobia
although t
nated from
hose with
espread an
nal langua
inst the w
urban m
question 2
) and ele
d was clo
he sense
heir desire
t xenopho
heir langua
eir dislike
d their coun
bs have b
ty. Given
a has been
they were
m the feeli
h xenopho
and ascend
age. So, th
wide spread
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
males
2
even
sely
of
e to
obia,
age,
e to
ntry
been
this
n at
not
ings
obia
dant
hose
d of
Eng
spre
N
kin
tow
the
nex
C
Qu
xen
una
any
at a
lang
par
phe
atti
pro
of
beli
glish all o
ead quick
Nine urba
nd of a se
wards their
western s
xt chart sch
Chart (3)
uestion (4
nophobia i
The part
animously
yone with
as a norm
guage and
rticipants
enomenon
tude to x
obably resu
nationalis
ief in th
over the w
ly instead
an males (
ense of an
r country
social and
hematizes
: The per
4): Is xen
ill?
ticipants (
y agreed
xenophob
mal feeling
d its cultur
assured th
n. In this
xenophob
ult from c
sm and et
he superi
rural femal
world. The
.
(18%) tho
nger towa
and from
d cultural v
s the perce
rcentages
nophobia
(100%), w
that xeno
bia could n
g. It is som
re was som
hat xenop
regard, Y
ia is adm
ultural up
thnocentri
iority of
rural m
es
15
ey wished
ought that
ards the p
m their fear
values cou
entages of
of the ove
a mental
whether t
ophobia w
not be ill
mething e
mething th
phobia has
Yakushko
mitted wo
pbringing a
ism, both
one's n
urb
males
d their lan
t xenophob
pragmatic
r of the st
uld have o
f the overa
erall resp
l imbalan
those with
was not a
because x
xpected si
hat could
s been dea
o (2009:
orldwide
and is "int
of which
nation-stat
ban females
nguage (i.e
bia might
c policies
trong influ
over them
all respons
ponses to q
nce? Is so
h xenoph
mental im
xenophobi
ince fear o
be easily j
alt with a
44) sugg
and xeno
tricately ti
h are char
e over o
urban male
e., Arabic
t arise from
of the W
uences wh
m. The com
ses:
question 3
omeone w
hobia or
mbalance
ia was loo
of the fore
justified.
as a unive
gests that
ophobia m
ied to noti
aracterized
others."
0
10
20
30
es
c) to
m a
West
hich
ming
3
with
not,
and
oked
eign
The
ersal
the
may
ions
d by
The
per
cha
C
Qu
Eng
orig
a fo
fem
dist
and
hav
belo
the
glo
(22
on
hatr
not
rcentages
art:
Chart (4)
uestion (5)
glish as a
In respond
gins, said
oreign lan
males (20%
trust in fo
d hampere
ve ultimat
ongs to no
basis for
bal village
Urban st
2%) argued
learning E
red were i
t sensible
of the ov
: The per
): Does x
foreign la
ding to th
that xenop
nguage at
%) mentio
oreigners
ed their pro
tely forgo
o single cu
r promotin
e.
tudents, n
d that xen
English as
illogical a
to reject
rural female
verall resp
rcentages
xenophobi
nguage?
is question
phobia ne
university
oned that t
and their
ogress in l
otten that
ulture, but
ng cross-c
notably tw
nophobia d
s a foreign
and unsou
t learning
rural m
s
16
ponses are
of the ove
ia have a
n, some le
egatively a
y. Eleven
their fear
political
learning th
t English,
t rather pr
cultural u
welve fem
did not hav
n languag
und. These
g and usi
urb
males
e schema
erall resp
negative e
earners, no
affected th
rural mal
and hatre
systems h
his langua
, as an i
ovides wh
understand
males (24
ve any neg
ge. They s
e students
ing Englis
ban females
tized in t
ponses to q
effect on y
otably tho
heir learnin
es (22%)
ed of Engl
hindered t
age. Yet, th
nternation
hat McKay
ding in an
%) and e
gative or p
tated that
have real
sh as an
urban mal
the follow
question 4
your learn
ose from r
ng English
and ten r
lish and t
their learn
those stude
nal langua
y (2001) c
n increasin
eleven m
passive ef
this fear
lized that
internatio
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
es
wing
4
ning
rural
h as
rural
their
ning
ents
age,
calls
ngly
ales
ffect
and
it is
onal
lang
enr
Eng
ove
C
Qu
M
hum
Som
(18
fore
(20
unk
and
bein
soc
now
than
guage tod
riching int
glish lang
erall respo
Chart (5)
uestion (6)
Most resp
man being
me studen
8%) ascrib
eigners an
0%) and e
known.
Interesting
d culture i
ngs (Web
cial influen
w research
n previo
day since
teractions
guage. The
onses:
: The per
): Do you
pondents
gs, but th
nts, specifi
bed this g
nd foreign
eleven ma
gly, it is b
is a genet
b source 3
nces had
h finds th
ously beli
rural females
such a r
with mult
e followin
rcentages
u think the
agreed th
his gene m
ically ten
gene to t
language
ale learner
believed th
ic trait. Su
). It has l
the bigge
at genetic
ieved .T
rural m
s
17
rejection w
ticultural
ng chart e
of the ove
ere is a xen
hat there
might diff
rural mal
the fear o
s. Others,
rs (22%)
hat the op
uch a trai
ong been
est impact
cs may pla
This sugg
ur
males
will inevi
communi
elucidates
erall resp
nophobia g
was a xe
fer from
es (20%)
of everyth
that is ten
attributed
pposition t
it seems t
assumed
t on a per
ay a large
gests that
ban females
tably dep
ties throu
the perce
ponses to q
gene in all
enophobia
one group
and nine
hing stran
n urban fem
d it to the
to the fore
o run stro
that envir
rson's pre
er role in
t genetic
urban ma
prive them
ugh the us
entages of
question 5
l of us?
a gene in
p to anot
rural fem
nge includ
emale learn
e fear of
eign langu
ong in hum
ronments
eferences,
any behav
cs not
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
ales
m of
e of
f the
5
n all
ther.
ales
ding
ners
the
uage
man
and
but
vior
just
env
gen
infl
avo
ethn
C
Qu
and
M
they
Eng
Ma
wer
app
imp
Fem
whe
T
atti
vironment
netic prop
luence po
oidance a
nocentrism
Chart (6)
uestion (7)
d English a
Most urba
y did not
glish as a
ale rural l
re extrem
prehension
pression t
male rural
en they th
These resu
tudes and
r
- may sh
pensities m
olitical be
and phob
m (Chao: 2
: The per
): How an
as a foreig
an male (8
have any
foreign la
earners (1
mely anxi
n, perplex
towards th
l learners
hought ove
ults sugge
d values, b
rural females
hape ideo
may influ
lief. For
bias may
2012).
rcentages
nxious do
gn languag
8, 18%) an
feelings o
anguage an
12, 24%),
ious whe
xity, and d
his langu
(10, 20%
er English
est that ru
but they ar
rural m
18
ology and
uence peo
example,
y manife
of the ove
you feel w
ge?
nd female
of anxiety
nd of fore
on the o
en they
disquiet w
uage and
%) stated th
h and forei
ural and u
re not as d
urb
ales
d partners
ople's emo
a tenden
st itself
erall resp
when you
(11, 22%
y and fear
eigners wh
other hand
thought
was derive
those for
hat they w
gners.
urban are
different a
an females
hip. As
otions, wh
ncy for hi
as xeno
ponses to q
u think abo
) learners
r when the
ho speak t
d, mention
about En
ed from th
eigners w
were some
as may h
as many w
urban male
such, cer
hich in tu
igh patho
ophobia
question 6
out foreign
declared
ey conside
this langua
ned that t
nglish. T
their nega
who speak
ehow anxi
have diffe
would belie
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
es
rtain
urn,
ogen
and
6
ners
that
ered
age.
they
heir
ative
k it.
ious
rent
eve.
Thi
rura
atti
.Th
unl
On
feel
As
fab
C
Qu
lang
W
and
(24
as
mis
ans
com
is come in
al people r
tudes tow
his has fo
like the ur
the face
lings of b
such, rura
ric.
Chart (7)
uestion (8)
guage one
With resp
d no. Thos
4%) and n
the fear
stakes in
swered w
mmitting m
n accord w
remain far
wards the
ostered xe
rban peopl
of it, the
elonging t
al autochth
: The per
): Is the f
e cause of
pect to th
se who an
nine rural f
of the fo
their per
ith no, a
mistakes b
rural females
with what C
r more tra
western
enophobic
le who typ
e presenc
to a closed
hones take
rcentages
fear of com
f xenophob
is questio
nswered w
female stu
oreign lan
rformance
argued tha
because c
rural m
19
Campbell
aditional th
culture h
sentimen
pically arg
ce of nega
d commun
e western
of the ove
mmitting
bia?
on, studen
with yes, th
udents (18
nguage re
e at univ
at xenoph
committing
ur
males
(2003) as
han the ur
have rema
nts toward
gue in favo
ative imag
nity linked
values as
erall resp
a lot of m
nts' answe
hat is twel
8%), ment
esulted in
versity. Ot
hobia was
g mistake
rban females
serts. He m
rbans wher
ained larg
ds the fo
our of inte
ges is ass
d to agrar
s a threat t
ponses to q
mistakes i
rs varied
lve rural m
tioned tha
n committ
thers, i.e.
s not a c
s in learn
urban m
mentions
reby the r
gely nega
oreign cul
erculturali
sociated w
rian activit
to their so
question 7
in the fore
between
male stude
at xenopho
ting a lot
., those w
cause beh
ning a fore
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
males
that
rural
ative
ture
ism.
with
ties.
ocial
7
eign
yes
ents
obia
t of
who
hind
eign
lang
valu
per
incl
stud
atti
wil
Roy
and
kill
.Th
mis
gui
inte
assu
The
mo
resp
C
guage wa
ues, and
rformance
lude elev
dents (22%
In this res
tudes tow
l be acco
y (2016)
d consequ
ler langua
his nativis
smatch in
ilty of xen
erested in
uming tha
eir concer
ther tong
ponses to
Chart (8)
as somethi
beliefs a
in the L
ven urban
%).
spect, Gar
wards the f
mplished
asserts th
uently mad
age" that
tic reactio
n the basi
nophobic
reading E
at these th
rn was fra
gue and
question 8
: The per
rural females
ing natura
as well a
L2. Those
n female
rdner and
foreign lan
in acquir
hat those l
de grave
endangers
on is due
c thinking
attitudes a
English pu
hings were
aught with
cultural
8 can be s
rcentages
rural m
s
20
al due to t
as gramm
e who an
students
Lambert (
nguage is
ring any a
learners w
errors an
s their ow
to the fe
g process
and behav
ublication
e a degen
h the possi
identity.
chematize
of the ove
ur
males
the effect
atical com
swered th
(22%) an
(1972) not
highly eth
aspects of
who feared
nd mistake
wn native
ear of fore
s and cult
viours add
ns and wa
nerative th
ible weak
The per
ed in the fo
erall resp
rban females
of L1 cu
mpetency
he questio
nd eleven
tice that if
hnocentric
f the forei
d the fore
es, took E
language
eigners be
ture. Thos
ded that th
tching En
hreat to Isl
ening and
rcentages
following c
ponses to q
urban ma
ultural nor
on learn
on negativ
n urban m
f the learn
c, no prog
ign langua
eign langu
English a
e and cul
ecause of
se who w
hey were
nglish mov
lamic valu
d loss of t
of learn
chart:
question 8
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
ales
rms,
ners'
vely
male
ners'
ress
age.
uage
s a"
ture
f the
were
not
vies
ues.
their
ners'
8
21
Question (9): Does the political system that embodies the foreign
language you study affect your feelings, views, or impressions about that
language?
Being asked this question, most rural learners, particularly (12, 24%)
males and (7, 14%) females, responded by saying that the major reason
behind their negative feelings and impressions about English were
associated with their hatred of the political systems of the countries where
English is spoken. This antipathy was related to the image of enemy,
which involved portraying foreigners as enemies, abreast the differences
in the cultural values, beliefs, and religion.
Iraqi rural learners articulated their negative attitudes via extremely
nationalistic views because they thought that Islam and the West are
antithetical in their values and because of the West brutal political
actions. For them learning English ignited images of imperialism,
exploitation and alienation which consequently augured ill-will against
learning such a language. They believed, as has been suggested by Dorian
(1998), that foreigners have been continuously trying to control their
thoughts and impose the superiority of the West. Foreigners have the
intent not only to colonialize a place and its people but also to superpose
their linguistic and cultural norms. Some of the pernicious and persistent
aspects of colonialization involve not just military occupation, political
domination but also systematic assaults on cultural integrity, language,
life ways, and ethnic identity.
As opposed to the first group, some learners, notably ten urban female
learners (20%) and (7, 14%) urban male learners, showed a different
view. They argued that the political system of the countries where
English is used as a primary language did not affect their feelings and
atti
lang
reli
or
com
intr
Acc
rath
that
lang
Stu
the
inte
inst
sign
Sch
insi
per
C
tudes tow
guage wa
igion, and
language
mmunity w
roduction
cording to
her as enri
t learning
guage by
udying a fo
contrary,
entionality
tructional
nificant c
hwarzer (
ight into
rcentages o
Chart (9)
ward Eng
s somethin
d other fac
communi
would tur
to new
o them, d
ichment. I
a foreign
y amplifyi
foreign lan
, it allows
y. It wi
program
cultural k
2006) thi
other cult
of the ove
: The per
rural females
glish. Th
ng neutral
ctors such
ities. They
rn it into
ideologie
ifferences
In support
n language
ing metac
nguage do
s students
ill requir
m of adv
nowledge
inks that
tures and
rall respon
rcentages
rural m
s
22
ey menti
l; it should
as the rel
y added t
a closed
es, innov
s should n
t of such a
e simultan
cognitive
oes not un
to use th
re a co
vanced lan
e and uni
foreign l
promotes
nses can b
of the ove
ur
males
ioned tha
d not be a
lation betw
that the n
one whe
vations an
not be per
a stance, B
neously co
awarenes
dermine t
heir first la
omprehen
nguage a
iversal bi
anguage
s intercult
be shown i
erall resp
ban females
at learnin
associated
ween the t
negative a
ere there w
nd though
rceived as
Berman (2
ontributes
s of ling
he native
anguage w
sive and
abilities c
lingualism
study off
tural com
in the follo
ponses to q
urban ma
ng a fore
with polit
two count
attitudes o
would be
ht proces
s a threat
011) belie
to one's o
guistic issu
language
with a gre
d articula
coupled w
m. Moreo
fers a uni
mpetence.
owing cha
question 9
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
ales
eign
tics,
tries
on a
e no
sses.
but
eves
own
ues.
: on
eater
ated
with
ver,
ique
The
art:
9
23
Question (10): Is the fear of the unknown or the future a cause of
xenophobia?
All the respondents (100%) agreed that the fear of the unknown was
one of the causes of xenophobia. Urban learners, in particular, argued that
fear of the future might be one of the causes of xenophobia since
xenophobia, for them, was any kind of fear hidden in the future which
could be something unpredictable.
Rural students think that the western value legacy is craving for
further colonial and imperial interest in the region. This would create a
feeling of alienation and strangers could be seen as people who have
come to reign chaos in the homeland of the local populace.
Moosavi (2012) argues that the fears of Arabs are justified despite
growing intercultural collaboration at different levels since phenomena
such as racism, ethnocentrism, stereotypes prejudices and different forms
of extremism appeared to have become increasingly common. He argues
that xenophobia is now pervasive in British society. This leads Muslims
in Britain to be seen as outsiders and potential enemies even if they have
been integrated into the British society. Moreover, Kramsch (2011)
argues that their fears per se alluded to the view that future modernity
may rob their simple life and simple dreams because modernity may
entail going from the most simple to the most complicated.
C
Qu
affe
A
cou
disa
tow
effe
any
per
on
diff
find
them
acc
prej
anim
disr
Chart (10)
uestion (11
ect people
All respon
uld affect
advantage
wards the f
ects of x
ything for
rcentage o
It is wide
linguistic
ferences b
d it stressf
m or they
cept other
judice no
mosity am
respect, et
: The per
1): What
e? In other
ndents, wh
t people
es of xeno
foreign lan
xenophobia
reign, esp
f the respo
ely ackno
c and soci
between c
ful when t
y perceive
rs, xenop
otions tha
mong nat
thnocentri
rural females
rcentages
are the di
r words, w
hether xen
psycholo
ophobia w
nguage an
a was be
pecially fo
ondents sc
wledged t
iocultural
cultures w
they are ex
e as strang
phobia us
t are pre
tions and
ism, and m
rural m
s
24
of the ove
isadvantag
what are th
nophobic o
ogically. T
was that it
nd foreign
eing undu
oreigners
cores 100%
that xenop
ambiguit
which pos
xposed to
ge. As bei
sually bui
valent in
take the
misunders
ur
males
erall resp
ges of xen
he effects o
or not, adm
They arg
has excit
ners. They
uly fearfu
and their
%.
phobia an
ties and o
e chauvin
the cultur
ing the att
ilds on t
a society
e forms o
tanding. T
rban females
ponses to q
nophobia?
of xenoph
mitted tha
ued that
ed the fee
y added th
l or cont
r languag
d other so
oddities re
nistic attit
res that are
titude that
the existin
y. Such a
of intolera
This reside
urban m
question
? How doe
hobia?
at xenopho
one of
elings of h
hat one of
temptuous
ge. Thus,
ocial ills f
esulting fr
tudes. Peo
e unknow
t tends no
ng bias
attitudes
rance, hat
es princip
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
males
10
es it
obia
the
hate
f the
s of
the
feed
from
ople
wn to
ot to
and
fuel
tred,
pally
in t
inev
app
200
fore
one
thei
cus
clo
Thi
The
cha
C
Qu
(W
R
mal
the
wer
the belief
vitably le
prehension
03). Thes
eigners an
e's culture
ir languag
stoms of th
sed one d
is will also
e percenta
art:
Chart (11)
uestion (12
What do you
Rural lear
les (26%)
context o
re nationa
of the sup
ead to the
n experien
se things
nd their lan
and coher
ge is dee
he locals,
deprived o
o have lon
ages of lea
: The per
2): How c
u suggest?
rners unan
) suggeste
of learnin
alistic in
rural females
periority o
e feeling
nced when
are not
nguage bu
rence (ibid
emed as d
and thus
of technolo
ng-term ec
arners' resp
rcentages
can we sol
?)
nimously,
ed that xen
ng or any
essence.
rural m
25
of one's na
of uneas
n learning
the dire
ut are rath
d.). That i
dangerous
the comm
ogical adv
conomic,
ponses can
of the ove
lve xenoph
that is tw
nophobia
other con
They as
ur
males
ation- state
se, worry,
a foreign
ct outcom
her the resu
s , the inc
s to the c
munity wil
vancemen
social and
n be repre
erall resp
hobia in th
welve fema
could not
ntext beca
sserted th
rban females
e over oth
non-accl
n language
me of co
ult of the
oming of
culture, tr
ll be turne
ts and new
d political
sented in
ponses to q
he context
ales (24%)
t be solve
ause xeno
at it was
urban ma
hers. This
lamation
e (Gregers
oming acr
fear of los
strangers
raditions,
ed into tig
w ideolog
l effects on
the follow
question
t of learni
) and thirt
ed whethe
ophobic tr
s a unive
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
ales
will
and
son:
ross
sing
and
and
htly
gies.
n it.
wing
11
ing?
teen
er in
raits
ersal
26
phenomenon and there was no way to get rid of it. Urban learners,
particularly eleven females (22%) and ten males (20%), suggested that
xenophobia could be terminated or extenuated by removing the enemy
image of foreigners, by raising people's awareness toward the importance
of English as a foreign language, and by presenting cultural an
educational lessons and programs showing that no language would be
better than another and that each language could have its own values
which may render it different from other languages.
We can argue, following Sussex and Kirpattrick (2012), that both these
voices derive from different standpoints. The first standpoint leans upon
the conviction that the dominance of teaching a foreign language has
created linguistic and cultural stereotyped inequalities between the
foreign language and the native one. That is, learning a foreign language
may lead to a western mode of communication, i.e. sacrificing traditions,
culture and linguistic structures especially if learning a foreign language
is conducted at the expense of the learners' cultural identity.
The second stand point implies that the successful interaction with
people from different cultures greatly depends on one's capacity to
understand not only their culture but also the culture of others. This
entails that with the growth and integration with the world political
economy comes the increasing need for English language (ibid.). As
such, foreign language instruction must give the learners capabilities for
functioning in foreign language communication situations. This also
means that learners need to be educated in understanding and valuing
how people live and speak in other cultures in a fresh stimulating way so
as to foster tolerance and empathy towards other cultures by reducing
ethnocentricity and stereotypical thinking (Forsman:2004). The following
chart indicates the percentages of the learners' responses to question 12:
C
Ped
B
way
of
cult
that
"co
stra
lear
(20
gra
cult
exp
sen
teac
to t
see
per
abo
Chart (12)
dagogical
Broadly s
y we feel,
culture b
tural iden
t culture
ommunica
ategies a
rning proc
000) states
ammatical
tures. How
pense of t
nsitize the
ching and
train the d
n as med
rceptions o
out learnin
: The per
l Implicat
speaking,
, think and
becomes a
tity. Peng
es vary
cy" and t
and comm
cess to dev
s that teach
rules in
wever, lea
the learne
e learners
d learning
desired qu
diators bet
of the wor
ng languag
rural females
rcentages
tions
culture is
d behave.
a relevant
g (2014) an
from pla
the willin
munication
velop lang
hing a fore
order to c
arning ab
rs own cu
to divers
goals wil
ualities wil
tween vari
rld. Tradit
ges, not a
rural m
27
of the ove
s all aroun
Therefor
nt feature
and Sussex
ace to p
ngness to
n skills sh
guage lear
reign langu
communic
bout a fore
ultural ide
sity in la
ll have to
ll have to
ious ident
tionally, th
about chan
urb
males
erall resp
nd us and
e, languag
of the in
x and Kirp
place; thu
communi
hould be f
ners' glob
uage impl
cate with
eign cultu
entity. If
anguages
be set up
be devise
tities, cult
he langua
nging the
ban females
ponses to q
it is wha
ge as a ke
ndividual'
patrick (20
us, the
icate acc
focused o
al awaren
ies more t
other peo
ure must n
instructor
and cultu
and suita
ed. Teache
tures, pers
age classro
world or
urban ma
question
at we are,
ey compon
's social
012) men
concepts
commoda
on during
ness. Hinoj
than know
ople of o
not be at
rs are able
ures, accu
able activi
ers should
spectives
oom has b
even ones
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
les
12
the
nent
and
tion
of
tion
the
josa
wing
ther
the
e to
urate
ities
d be
and
been
self.
28
Peterson and Coltrane (2003) argue that pure linguistic knowledge is not
sufficient for cultural interaction. Hence, English has to be taught through
the socio-cultural norms and values of the country where it is used which
would inevitably result in the creation of individuals who are both
bilingual and bicultural. Tellingly, foreign language instruction should be
furnished with intercultural learning activities which encourage learners
to become aware of others and their cultures which should not be seen as
a source of threat but as a source of enrichment. They need to learn that
the spectrum of possible ideas, opinions, and lifestyles is wider than what
they have thought so as to save themselves both from self-centeredness
and ethnocentrism. Finally, the persistence of such educational problems
must spur educators to work harder because our era needs that they can
build bridges across national, continental and global frontiers. Kubota
(2012) states that the differing cultural perspectives create an imperative
not to make assumptions about religion, culture and values that make up
room for many other firms of difference. This can be executed by
designing lesson materials which reflect multiculturalism based on
dialogue, mutual trust, understanding, and appreciation of similarities and
difference.
Conclusions
The current study has come up with the following conclusions as
regarding Iraqi EFL learners' conception of the term xenophobia:
1. The geographical location where learners live, that is living in cities or
in rural areas, exerts a considerable influence on their views and
preferences. Students in rural areas have a lower level sense of
international orientation than students who live in metropolitan areas.
29
This had a negative effect on their evaluation of English as a foreign
language since their attitude ignited animosity toward western countries.
2. Most Iraqi undergraduate fourth year students, especially those of rural
origins, have agreed that xenophobia, which is defined as the fear or
hatred of the foreign, could have a negative effect on the learning process.
For them, it could hinder deep-level learning. They associated English
with colonialism, westernization antipathy. They are actually insular and
more patriotic, and the don not welcome outside ideas
3. Rural male learners have been more fanatic towards the foreign
language than their urban counterparts. They tended to show aggression
and zeal towards English. They took foreigners as criminal occupiers of
land and cultural values and they took them hence as a threat to their
social fabric. This might stem from the fact that they are more
conservative and are mostly associated with feelings of belonging to
closed community linked to agricultural activities.
4. Female learners, particularly urban ones, have not been xenophobic
since they did not have fear of or any negative feelings toward English as
a foreign language. They were more open-minded in comparison to their
rural equivalents. They associated English with civilization, development,
freedom, and cosmopolitanism. This has shown that female learners are
disposed to prestige. They value English as a prestigious language. They
have a higher level of international orientation than male learners. They
along with urban students have shown that there would be a strong
likelihood that foreign language learners could not escape the attraction
of worldwide cultural products of English societies, visiting foreign
places and meeting foreign people since they have developed a sense of
curiosity about different cultures and different people.
30
5. The teaching of the foreign language curriculum seems to have a short
coming in providing learners with an in-depth viewpoint embracing the
foreign language culture not as a source of threat but as a source of
enrichment and in preparing them to welcome linguistic and cultural
differences in the world. As such, the curriculum must include authentic
foreign materials which can be obtained from sources like newspapers,
magazines, news programs, lectures, etc. Teachers need to go hand-in-
hand with broader, and ultimately more significant educational aims, to
do with promoting responsible citizenship, democracy, tolerance and
peace and can help to develop the vital skills of empathy and
understanding.
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35
Appendix
Reflect your own real feelings and impressions and respond to the
following questions on xenophobia.
1. What is your conception about xenophobia?
2. What images spring to your minds when you hear the word
xenophobia?
3. Where does xenophobia come from?
4. Is xenophobia a mental imbalance? Is someone with xenophobia
ill?
5. Does xenophobia have a negative effect on your learning English
as a foreign language?
6. Do you think there is a xenophobia gene in all of us?
7. How anxious do you feel when you think about foreigners and
English as a foreign language?
8. Is the fear of committing a lot of mistakes in the foreign language
one case of xenophobia?
9. Does the political system that embodies the foreign language you
study affect your feelings, views, or impressions about that
language?
10. Is the fear of the unknown a cause of xenophobia?
11. What are the disadvantages of xenophobia? How does it affect
people? In other words, what are the effects of xenophobia?
12. How can we solve xenophobia in the context of learning? (What do
you suggest?)
36
Chapter Two
Investigating The Speech Act of Correction in Iraqi EFL
Context
Prof. Dr. Abbas Deygan Darweesh
Wafaa Sahib Mehdi
Abstract
If one wishes to master a language, he needs to become communicatively
competent in that language. It is a fact that linguistic accuracy is important,
but it is not sufficient alone. Learners are required to acquire the language
they are to learn with its sociocultural rules along with structural rules (i.e.
form and function levels). Both rules may help and guide in the choices of
appropriate forms in communication and maintain smooth interactional
relations.
This paper studies the Iraqi EFL college students' performance of the speech
act of correction and how is it realized with status unequal. It sets for itself the
following questions: how is the speech act of correction realized in the Iraqi
EFL context? Are Iraqi EFL learners aware of the issue of status in their
communicative moves? It attempts to elicit this speech act from those EFL
students to analyze it in terms of its semantic formulas. Six situations are
introduced to students from the College of Languages, University of Baghdad
for the academic year 2015-2016 to respond to. These situations are of three
different levels of status: the case of equal status, from higher status to a lower
one and vice versa. Piles of studies are found on the various speech acts used
in daily life communication like requests, apologies, complains, compliments,
etc. Rare studies, however, are found concerning the speech act of correction
in verbal interactions. Here lies the importance of this study. This research has
a didactically oriented goal which is how to teach speech acts to foreign
leaners. It is hoped to have applications not only in ESL/EFL pedagogy but
also in the study of intercultural communication.
Key Words: Speech Act Theory, Speech Act of Correction, EFL, Politeness
37
Speech Act Theory (SAT)
The basic concept of SAT is "saying is part of doing" (Austin, 1962: 12).
The theory, developed by Austin in the 1930s, distinguishes between
performatives and constatives. The first perform an act while the latter is
to be verified as true or false. Then constatives were rendered as one form
of performatives (Lyons, 1995: 283). Producing an utterance means
engaging in three related simultaneous acts. The locutionary act is the
basic act of utterance, illocutionary act is a kind of function in mind. The
third is the perlocutionary act which is the effect of the illocutionary force
of the utterance (Yule, 1996: 48).
Searle (1969, 1971, and 1979) systemized Austin's work with
modifications. His speech acts are in fact Austin's illocutionary acts
(Searle, 1969: 37). He presents four conditions for an act to be felicitous
or happy: propositional, preparatory, sincerity and essential conditions
(Verschueren, 1999: 23). Searle (1979: 21ff) explains that SAT suggests
that all speech acts in any language fall into five categories:
a. Assertives: expressing a belief and committing the speaker to the
truth of what is asserted (e.g. statements).
b. Directives: expressing a wish and counting as an attempt to get
hearer to do something (e.g. requests).
c. Commissives: expressing an intention and counting as a
commitment for the speaker to engage in a future course of action
(e.g. promises).
d. Expressives: expressing a psychological state (e.g. apologies).
e. Declaratives: not expressing a psychological state and bringing
about a change in institutional reality (e.g. declaring a war).
The criteria which have to be satisfied for a speech act to be happy or
successful are known as felicity conditions (Crystal, 2003: 427).
Illocutionary acts might be expressed via a particular sentence-type which
is usually associated with it (Searle, 1979: 30). There is an easily realized
relationship between the structural forms of declaratives, interrogatives
and imperatives and the three communicative functions of statements,
questions and commands or requests respectively (Yule, 1996: 55). Thus,
the direct relationship between structure and function will result in a
direct speech act. There is a match between the interrogative sentence
38
type in English and the act of questioning (Saeed, 1997: 214). "Pass me
the salt" is an imperative that is used to express a request. When the
relation is indirect, we have indirect speech acts. "Could you call me a
taxi?" is a question that functions as a request not to ask about one's
ability to call a taxi (Verschueren, 1999: 25; Geis, 1995: 123).
Searle (1979: 32) expounds that in indirect speech acts, speakers
communicate more than they actually say. They rely on mutual shared
knowledge, background information and the general powers of rationality
and inference of their interlocutors (Mey, 1993: 142). It is assumed that
most usages are indirect. The speech act of requesting is rarely performed
by an imperative in English. It is carried out indirectly (Hung, 2007: 111).
According to Blum-Kulka (1987: 131), direct strategies can be perceived
as impolite because they indicate a lack of concern with face, and
nonconventional indirect strategies (hints) can be perceived as impolite
because they indicate a lack of concern for pragmatic clarity.
Politeness
One reason why people resort to use indirect speech acts is associated
with the issue of politeness (Leech, 1983: 79). They are commonly
regarded to be more polite than their direct counterparts. Moreover, the
more indirect a speech act, the more polite (Hung, 2007: 115). There is an
extensive literature on politeness and its different theoretical models as
Lakoff's rules (1973), Leech's conversational maxims (1983), Fraser's
conversational contract (1990), among others, as Eelen (2001: 2) clarifies.
The model that is most influential and of direct concern to this study is
that of Brown and Levinson (1978, 1987). As such, it is discussed below.
Brown and Levinson's (1987) Model
Brown and Levinson see politeness in terms of conflict avoidance. Their
main conception, however, is the concept of face which is the public
image every member wants to claim. It has two opposing "wants":
negative face (the desire to be unimpeded by others) and positive face
(the want to be desirable to others) (Brown and Levinson, 1987: 66). The
model claims that positive and negative face exist universally in human
culture.
39
Politeness can be defined as "the means employed to show awareness of
another person's face" (Yule, 1996: 60). If a speaker utters something that
is considered as a threat to another person's expectations regarding self-
image, it is counted as Face Threatening Acts (FTA) (ibid.: 61). FTAs are
usually acts that inherently damage the face of the addressee or the
speaker. Given the fact that some actions might be interpreted as a threat
of another's face, the speaker can minimize or lessen this possible threat.
These are called Face Saving Acts (FSA)(ibid.).
Eelen (2001: 4) contemplates "The amount and kind of politeness that is
applied to a certain speech act is determined by the `weightiness' of the
latter". This is calculated by speakers from three social variables: power
(the perceived power difference between hearer and speaker), distance
(the social distance between them) and rank (the cultural ranking of the
speech act or how threatening it is perceived to be within a specific
culture).
Brown and Levinson (1987: 60) suggest a set of five possibilities which
are available to the speaker. These strategies range from doing the FTA to
avoiding doing it. They are numbered according to the increasing
weightiness of the FTA resulting in the selection of strategies with
decreasing perceived threat to face. In cases where the speech act has
little weightiness, it can be produced baldly on record, with no redressive
action. Figure (1) below shows these strategies. The scale on the left
represents the degree to which these strategies are face-threatening to the
addressee.
Fi
Pol
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40
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41
Every speech act has its own felicity conditions, if it is to be performed
successfully. To set the felicity conditions of the speech act of correction,
Searle's (1979) conditions are applied as follows:
1. Preparatory conditions: hearer realizes that speaker's utterance is
erroneous. Hearer is sure of that and he knows the correct piece of
information.
2. Sincerity conditions: hearer feels he has the ability to correct the
error of speaker and it is part of his desire, responsibility, duty or
obligation to do so.
3. Essential conditions: hearer wants and desires to change speaker's
erroneous utterance.
To know how to deal with a speaker's error is of paramount importance.
The kind of the relationship holding between speaker and hearer has a
crucial role: whether the two interlocutors share the same status or they
have a higher to lower one and vice versa.
Lots of studies are available on the kind of correction or corrective
feedback that is found in classroom interaction (Al-Saate and Al-
Jumaily, 2016). One important role of teacher inside the classroom is
giving corrections to students' erroneous responses. Different kinds of
corrective feedback are distinguished as Panova and Lyster (2002), Lyster
and Ranta (1997) among many others. Although they seem as a must and
completely rightly justified, these corrective feedbacks should be
delivered cautiously. Teachers need to think deeply when they correct
learners in order not to make them feel "absolutely stupid" and to
maintain rapport (Pishghadam and Kermanshahi, 2011: 343). Some
studies find that teachers prefer indirect correction (Ellis et al., 2001). In
fact, this is only one legitimate case of giving corrections to others. It is
within the institutionalized context of teacher- student interaction.
However, different other situations might entail some corrections, as this
study assumes.
In other daily communication, corrections need to be given carefully to
pursue the rules of politeness and maintain rapport. One does not want to
find himself mistaken or saying something erroneous. This threatens his
face's needs. The speech act of correction is a FTA for hearer and speaker
alike. The first needs enough courage to talk or correct and the latter
42
needs to accept and admit his incorrectness. As such, what are the
strategies employed by interlocutors to perform such an act?
In their unique study on correction, Takahashi and Beebe (1993) examine
American and Japanese performance of the speech act of correction with
unequal power status. Their research gives a model for the study of this
act. They distinguish the use of positive remarks, softeners, and other
similar formulas as means to lessen the FTA and to make communication
smoother, reduce friction and keep rapport (Takahashi and Beebe,
1993:139). They analyse each "speech act as consisting of a sequence of
semantic formulas" (ibid.: 138). They state that positive remarks include
praise, compliments and positive evolution. A positive remark is "a
preceding adjunct which is phrasal and separate from the main body"
(e.g. it was a good presentation, but...). Softeners, on the other hand, are
"down toning devices integrated in the main body of speech acts". They
are subcategorized into three groups:
1. Softeners (e.g. I think, I believe, you may have...)
2. Questions (e.g. Did you say...? , Do you mean ...?)
3. Expressions to lighten the gravity of the mistake or to defend the
interlocutor (e.g. you made one small error...)
By specifying these semantic formulas, one can find the different
realizations of the speech act under scrutiny. Accordingly, positive
remarks and softeners are important politeness strategies manipulated by
error correctors. They are necessary prefixes to FTA in English ( ibid.:
141). It is worthy to mention that Takahashi and Beebe's study selected
only two different power of relations, higher to lower and lower to higher
and it compared American and Japanese in these situations. They came
up with conclusions that the two societies are different in the performance
of this speech act. This study incorporates the equal power rank into the
analysis. It, furthermore, applies this speech act on Iraqi foreign language
learners of English not on two different cultures.
Teaching Pragmatic Competence
One more section seems crucial for this research paper. To communicate
appropriately in a target language, pragmatic competence in this second
language must be reasonably well developed. However, learners often
show an imbalance in grammatical and pragmatic competence as the
43
latter often lags behind the first. Pragmatic consciousness in L2 should be
given importance to help learners distinguish between what is and is not
appropriate in given contexts (Eslami and Rasekh, 2008: 178).
Accordingly, there is a need for L2 instruction to focus on the pragmatics
of the language being learned. Researchers point out the positive impact
of instruction aimed at raising learners' pragmatic awareness in order to
avoid cases of pragmatic failure and in order not to hinder communication
(Olshtain and Cohen, 1991: 154). Textbooks, teachers and training
programs are required to pay more attention to pragmatic aspects in L2.
While most studies have focused on the production of the target
pragmatic features or their use in interaction, instruction aimed at
improving learners' pragmatic comprehension has received far less
attention, as Eslami and Rasekh (2008: 179) argue.
One important issue that should be dealt with in L2 classroom is how to
use speech acts, especially those that represent a threat to the
interlocutors. FTAs have received much attention because when used
improperly cross- culturally, they might cause and lead to a pragmatic
failure and to a sort of misunderstanding and miscommunication.
Methodology and Data
Six different situations adapted and modified from previous studies
(Takahashi and Beebe, 1993 and Hanh, 2011) are to be incorporated with
real life instances from daily communication. These represent the data of
this research. To know how Iraqi EFL students perform this speech act,
forty students from the College of Languages/ University of Baghdad (for
the academic year 2015-2016) are chosen to fill a discourse completion
test for the purpose of eliciting the possible set that realizes the act of
correction. The number of the students who participated in the test are
forty due to the fact that this is the traditional usual number of students in
the Iraqi classrooms at university levels.
Two situations are cases of equal-power status, two are from lower to
higher and the last two are from higher to lower. The rationale behind
choosing two situations for each status is to have a full picture and a
complete comprehensive view of the whole possible usages.
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